View source for Social:Timor–Alor–Pantar languages

{{Infobox language family
|name=Timor–Alor–Pantar
|region=Timor and neighboring islands
|familycolor=Papuan
|fam1=Trans–New Guinea or independent [[Social:Language family|language family]]
|fam2=Berau Gulf
|fam3=[[Social:West Bomberai languages|West Bomberai]]<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/newguineaworld/families/trans-new-guinea/berau-gulf/west-bomberai New Guinea World, West Bomberai]</ref>
|child1=Alor–Pantar
|child2=East Timor
|child3=''Bunak''
|glotto=timo1261
|glottorefname=Timor–Alor–Pantar
}}

The '''Timor–Alor–Pantar''' (TAP) languages are a [[Social:Language family|family]] of Papuan (non-Austronesian) languages spoken in Timor, Kisar, and the Alor archipelago in Southern Indonesia.

Holton and Klamer (2018) classify Timor–Alor–Pantar as an independent language family, since they find links with Trans-New Guinea too unconvincing.<ref name="Holton-Birds-Head">{{cite book |last1=Holton |first1=Gary |last2=Klamer |first2=Marian |editor1-last=Palmer |editor1-first=Bill |date=2018 |title=The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide |chapter=The Papuan languages of East Nusantara and the Bird’s Head |series= The World of Linguistics |volume=4 |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |pages=569–640 |isbn=978-3-11-028642-7}}</ref>

==Languages==
The languages are demonstrably related, with the Alor–Pantar languages forming a distinct subgroup.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Holton|first1=Gary|last2=Klamer|first2=Marian|last3=Kratochvíl|first3=František|last4=Robinson|first4=Laura C.|last5=Schapper|first5=Antoinette|title=The historical relation of the Papuan languages of Alor and Pantar|journal=Oceanic Linguistics|date=2012|volume=51|issue=1|pages=87–122|doi=10.1353/ol.2012.0001|hdl=1887/18594}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Schapper|first1=Antoinette|last2=Huber|first2=Juliette|last3=van Engelenhoven|first3=Aone|date=2012|contribution=The historical relation of the Papuan languages of Timor and Kisar|title=History, Contact and Classification of Papuan Languages|editor1-last=Hammarström|editor1-first=Harald|editor2-last=van der Heuvel|editor2-first=Wilco|location=Port Moresby|publisher=Linguistic Society of New Guinea}}</ref> The following conservative classification is from Ross (2005), Schapper et al. (2012), and Holton et al. (2012).

* '''Alor–Pantar''' family
* '''East Timor''' (Oirata–Makasai) family
*''Bunak''

The list given above is conservative, without any undemonstrated groups.

Bunak and the Alor–Pantar languages are sometimes grouped together as "West Timor", while Bunak and East Timor have been grouped as "Timor–Kisar".  Although the Alor–Pantar languages are clearly related, as are the Timor–Kisar languages and the two groups to each other, until comparative work is done on all languages simultaneously it will not be clear whether Bunak is closer to East Timor or to Alor–Pantar, or whether Alor–Pantar is a valid node. Kaiping and Klamer (2019), though, found Bunak to be the most divergent Timor-Alor-Pantar language, splitting off before East Timor and Alor-Pantar did.<ref>Gereon A. Kaiping and Marian Klamer. 2019b.'' Subgrouping the Timor-Alor-Pantar languages using systematic Bayesian inference''. Leiden University Centre for Linguistics, Universiteit Leiden.</ref>

Languages in Central and East Alor are generally more agglutinative than languages in Pantar and Timor, which are more isolating.<ref name="Holton-Birds-Head"/>

==History and classification==
Despite their geographic proximity, the Papuan languages of Timor are not closely related, and demonstration of a relationship between any of them is difficult, apart from the clearly related Alor–Pantar languages on the islands neighboring Timor.

Arthur Capell first proposed that the Timor languages were a family in 1941, and Watuseke & Anceaux did the same for Timor–Alor–Pantar in 1973. Both units have been broken up in more recent classifications, though their ultimate relationship is generally accepted.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Capell|first1=Arthur|title=Peoples and languages of Timor|journal=Oceania|date=1944|volume=15|issue=3|pages=19–48|doi=10.1002/j.1834-4461.1944.tb00409.x}}</ref>

In 1957 HKL Cowan linked the Timor languages to the [[Social:West Papuan languages|West Papuan]] family. However, when Stephen Wurm expanded Trans–New Guinea in 1975, he decided Timor–Alor–Pantar belonged there, and he linked it to the [[Social:South Bird's Head languages|South Bird's Head languages]] in a South Bird's Head – Timor–Alor–Pantar branch of that phylum. Wurm noted similarities with West Papuan, a different family, but suggested this was due to substratum influence.

Ross (2005) classifies Timor–Alor–Pantar with the [[Social:West Bomberai languages|West Bomberai languages]], the two groups forming a branch within West Trans–New Guinea. Based on a careful examination of new lexical data, Holton & Robinson (2014) find little evidence to support a connection between TAP and TNG.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Holton|last2=Robinson|first1=Gary|first2=Laura C.|date=2014|editor-first=Marian|editor-last=Klamer|contribution=The linguistic position of the Timor-Alor-Pantar languages|pages=155–198|publisher=Language Sciences Press|location=Berlin|title=Alor Pantar languages: History and Typology|doi=10.17169/langsci.b22.48}}</ref> However, Holton & Robinson (2017) concedes that a relationship with Trans-New Guinea and West Bomberai in particular is the most likely hypothesis, though they prefer to leave it unclassified for now.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Holton|last2=Robinson|first1=Gary|first2=Laura C.|date=2017|editor-first=Marian|editor-last=Klamer|contribution=The linguistic position of the Timor-Alor-Pantar languages|pages=147–190|publisher=Language Sciences Press|location=Berlin|title=Alor Pantar languages: History and Typology Second Edition|doi=10.5281/zenodo.437098}}</ref>

==Language contact==
The Timor–Alor–Pantar languages have been in considerable contact with these Austronesian languages:<ref>Juliette Huber and Antoinette Schapper. 2019. ''The Austronesian-Papuan contact history of eastern Timor: What lexical borrowing can tell us''. 11th International Austronesian and Papuan Languages and Linguistics Conference ([https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/geesteswetenschappen/leiden-university-centre-for-linguistics/apll11-booklet-of-abstracts-2019-06-05.pdf APLL11]), 13-15 June 2019, Leiden University.</ref>
*Kawaimina languages (Kairui, Waima’a, Midiki, Naueti)
*Kisar–Luangic languages (Kisar / Meher, Leti, Luang, possibly also [[Social:Makuva language|Makuva]])

==Proto-language==
===Phonology===
Proto-Timor–Alor–Pantar consonants are:<ref name="Holton-Birds-Head"/>

:{| {{table}}
| p || t ||  || k || q
|-
| b || d ||  || g || 
|-
| m || n ||  ||  || 
|-
|  || s ||  ||  || 
|-
| w ||  || j ||  || 
|-
|  || l, r, ʀ ||  ||  || 
|}

In contrast, proto-Alor-Pantar has the voiceless uvular stop /q/, which is absent in proto-Timor–Alor–Pantar.<ref name="Holton-Birds-Head"/>

===Pronouns===
Proto-Timor–Alor–Pantar pronouns as reconstructed by Ross (2005) are:

:{|
! !!sg!!pl
|-
!1excl
|rowspan=2|*ani~na||*ini
|-
!1incl
|*api
|-
!2
|*ai||*i
|-
!3
|*ga
|(*gi)
|}

Ross (2005) suggest these pronouns reflect proto-Trans–New Guinea 1st person *na, *ni and 2nd person *ga, *gi, and possibly the pTNG dual/inclusive *-pi-, but this has not been demonstrated to the satisfaction of other linguists, many of whom view Timor–Alor–Pantar as a distinct family.<ref>{{Citation |first=Malcolm |last=Ross |date=2005|editor1-first=Andrew|editor1-last=Pawley|editor2-last=Attenborough|editor2-first=Robert|editor3-first=Jack|editor3-last=Golson|editor4-last=Hide|editor4-first=Robin|publisher=Pacific Linguistics|location=Canberra|contribution=Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages|title=Papuan Pasts: Cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples}}</ref> In particular the pronoun relationships requires positing a "flip-flop" in which TNG 2nd person corresponds to TAP 3rd person pronouns.

===Lexicon===
Schapper, et al. (2017: 141-143) reconstruct the following proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar, proto-Alor-Pantar, and proto-Timor forms, demonstrating the relatedness of the Timor and Alor-Pantar languages.<ref>Antoinette Schapper, Juliette Huber & Aone van Engelenhoven. 2017. The relatedness of Timor-Kisar and Alor-Pantar languages: A preliminary demonstration. In Marian Klamer (ed.), ''[http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/157 The Alor-Pantar languages]'', 91–147. Berlin: Language Science Press. {{doi|10.5281/zenodo.569389}}</ref>


;proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar reconstructions (Schapper, et al. 2017)

:{| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar !! proto-Alor-Pantar !! proto-Timor
|-
| bamboo || *mari || *mari || *mari
|-
| banana || *mugul || *mogol || *mugu
|-
| bark, call ||  || *lVu || *le(k)u(l)
|-
| bat || *madel || *madel || *maTa
|-
| bathe || *weLi || *weli || *weru
|-
| bird || *(h)adul || *(a)dVl || *haDa
|-
| bite || *ki(l) || *(ta)ki || *(ga)gel
|-
| blood || *waj || *wai || *waj
|-
| bone || *se(r, R) || *ser || *(se)sa(r, R)
|-
| breast || *hami || *hami || *hami
|-
| child || *-uaQal || *-uaqal || *-al
|-
| clew || *ma(i)ta(r) || *maita || *matar
|-
| coconut || *wata || *wata || *wa(t, D)a
|-
| crawl || *er || *er || *er
|-
| crouch || *luk(V) || *luk(V) || *luk
|-
| die || *mV(n) || *min(a) || *-umV
|-
| dirty || *karV(k) || *karok || *gari
|-
| dream || *(h)ipar || *hipar || *ufar(ana)
|-
| ear || *-waRi || *-uari || *-wali
|-
| eat || *nVa || *nai || *nua
|-
| excrement || *(h)at(V) || *has || *a(t, D)u
|-
| face || *panu || *-pona || *-fanu
|-
| far || *le(t, d)e || *lete || *eTar
|-
| fire || *hada || *hada || *haTa
|-
| fish || *habi || *habi || *hapi
|-
| flat || *tatok || *tatok || *tetok
|-
| garden || *magad || *magad(a) || *(u, a)mar
|-
| girl || *pan(a) || *pon || *fana
|-
| give || *-(e, i)na || *-ena || *-inV
|-
| grandparent || *(t, d)ama || *tam(a, u) || *moTo
|-
| green || *lugar || *(wa)logar || *ugar
|-
| hand || *-tan(a) || *-tan || *-tana
|-
| hear || *mage(n) || *magi || *mage(n)
|-
| inside || *mi || *mi || *mi
|-
| itchy || *iRak || *(i)ruk || *ilag
|-
| laugh || *jagir || *jagir || *jiger
|-
| leg || *buta || *-bat || *buta
|-
| low || *po || *po || *ufe
|-
| mat || *bit || *bis || *biti
|-
| meat || *isor || *iser || *seor
|-
| moon || *hur(u) || *wur || *huru
|-
| mountain || *buku || *buku || *bugu
|-
| name ||  || *-en(i, u) || *-nej
|-
| new || *(t, s)iba(r) || *siba(r) || *(t, s)ipa(r)
|-
| new place || *lan || *lan || *lan
|-
| nose || *-mVN || *-mim || *-muni
|-
| one || *nukV || *nuk || *uneki
|-
| other || *abe(nVC) || *aben(VC) || *epi
|-
| ''[[Biology:Pterocarpus indicus|Pterocarpus indicus]]'' || *matar || *matar || *ma(t, D)ar
|-
| path || *jega || *jega || *jiga
|-
| person || *anV(N) || *anin || *anu
|-
| pig || *baj || *baj || *baj
|-
| pound || *tapa(i) || *tapai || *tafa
|-
| price || *boL || *bol || *bura
|-
| rain || *anu(r, R) || *anur || *ine(r, R)
|-
| rat || *dur(a) || *dur || *Dura
|-
| ripe || *tena || *tena || *tena
|-
| run || *tipar || *tiara || *tifar
|-
| scorpion || *pV(r, R) || *pVr || *fe(r, R)e
|-
| scratch || *karab || *karab || *gabar
|-
| sea || *tam(a) || *tam || *mata
|-
| shark || *sibar || *sib(a, i)r || *supor
|-
| sit || *mit || *mis || *mit
|-
| six || *talam || *talam || *tamal
|-
| sleep || *tia(r) || *tia || *tia(r)
|-
| spit || *puRV(n) || *purVn || *fulu(k, n)
|-
| spoon || *suRa || *surV || *sula
|-
| stand || *nat(er) || *nate(r) || *nat
|-
| star || *jibV || *jibV || *ipi(-bere)
|-
| stone || *war || *war || *war
|-
| sugarcane || *ub(a) || *huːba || *upa
|-
| sun || *wad(i, u) || *wadi || *waTu
|-
| taboo || *palu(l, n) || *palol || *falu(n)
|-
| tail || *-oRa || *-ora || *-ula(ʔ)
|-
| tongue || *-lebuR || *-lebur || *-ipul
|-
| tooth || *-wasin || *-uasin || *-wasin
|-
| tree || *hate || *tei || *hate
|-
| vagina || *-ar(u) || *-ar || *-aru
|-
| wake || *tan(i) || *-ten || *Tani
|-
| walk (1) || *lak(Vr) || *laka || *lagar
|-
| walk (2) || *lamV || *lam(ar) || *male
|-
| water || *jira || *jira || *ira
|-
| weave || *sine(N) || *sine(N) || *sina
|-
| yellow || *bagur(V) || *bagori || *gabar
|-
| 1pi || *pi || *pi- || *fi
|-
| 1sg || *na- || *na- || *n-
|-
| 3 || *gie || *ge || *gie
|-
| 3poss || *ga- || *ga- || *g-
|}

===Evolution===
Pawley and Hammarström (2018) list the following probable reflexes of Proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar (pTAP) and proto-Alor-Pantar (pAP; reconstructions drawn from Holton and Klamer 2018) from proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG; reconstructions from Pawley and Hammarström 2018).<ref name="Holton-Birds-Head">{{cite book |last1=Holton |first1=Gary |last2=Klamer |first2=Marian |editor1-last=Palmer |editor1-first=Bill |date=2018 |title=The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide |chapter=The Papuan languages of East Nusantara and the Bird’s Head |series= The World of Linguistics |volume=4 |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |pages=569–640 |isbn=978-3-11-028642-7}}</ref><ref name="Pawley-TNG">{{cite book |last1=Pawley |first1=Andrew |last2=Hammarström |first2=Harald |editor1-last=Palmer |editor1-first=Bill |date=2018 |title=The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide |chapter=The Trans New Guinea family |series= The World of Linguistics |volume=4 |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |pages=21–196 |isbn=978-3-11-028642-7}}</ref>

;Key: pTNG = proto-Trans New Guinea, pTAP = proto-Timor-Alor-Pantar, pAP = proto-Alor-Pantar
<br>
*pTNG *am(i,u) ‘breast’ > pTAP *hami ‘breast’
*pTNG *na ‘eat’ > pTAP *nVa ‘eat, drink’
*pTNG *ata ‘excrement’ > pTAP *(h)at(V) ‘excrement’
*pTNG *kumV- ‘die’ > pTAP *mV(n), pAP *min(a) ‘die’, pTimor *-mV ‘die’
*pTNG *inda ‘tree, wood’ > pTAP *hate ‘fire, wood’
*pTNG *panV > pTAP *pan(a) ‘girl’
*pTNG *nan(a,i) ‘older sibling’ > pAP *nan(a) ‘older sibling’
*pTNG *me ‘come’ > pAP *mai ‘come’
*pTNG *mundu ‘nose’ > pTAP *mVN ‘nose’
*pTNG *tukumba[C] ‘short’ > pAP *tukV ‘short’
*pTNG *ŋgatata ‘dry’ > pAP *takata
*pTNG *(m,mb)elak ‘lightning’ > Blagar ''merax'', Retta ''melak'' ‘lightning’

However, Holton and Robinson (2014) classify Timor-Alor-Pantar as an independent language family, rather than as part of Trans-New Guinea.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Klamer, Marian, Paul Trilsbeek, Tom Hoogervorst and Chris Haskett. 2015. ''[https://hdl.handle.net/1839/d000e37c-3ffe-4c41-a66b-48bef1d7f810 Language Archive of Insular Southeast Asia and West New Guinea (LAISEANG)]''. http://hdl.handle.net/1839/00-0000-0000-0018-CB72-4@view
*Kaiping, Gereon A. & Edwards, Owen & Klamer, Marian (eds.). 2019. LexiRumah 2.2.3. Leiden: Leiden University Centre for Linguistics. Available online at https://lexirumah.model-ling.eu/lexirumah/. Accessed on 2019-09-14.
*Greenhill et al., 2008. In: Kaiping, Gereon A. & Edwards, Owen & Klamer, Marian (eds.). 2019. LexiRumah 2.2.3. Leiden: Leiden University Centre for Linguistics. Available online at https://lexirumah.model-ling.eu/lexirumah/. Accessed on 2019-09-14.

==External links==
*[https://lexirumah.model-ling.eu/lexirumah/ LexiRumah] (part of the [http://www.model-ling.eu/ Lesser Sunda linguistic databases])
*[https://vici.marianklamer.org/ Reconstructing the past through languages of the present: the Lesser Sunda Islands]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080119191225/http://www.asianlang.mq.edu.au/INL/langs.html The Languages of East Timor: Some Basic Facts] (Revised 24.8.2004) Geoffrey Hull

{{DEFAULTSORT:Timor-Alor-Pantar languages}}
[[Category:Language families]]

{{Sourceattribution|Timor–Alor–Pantar languages|1}}