View source for Social:Parental leave

{{Short description|Time taken off to care for a new child}}
{{Copy edit|date=October 2023}}
[[File:Vaderschapsverlof.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Demonstration for parental leave in the European Parliament]]
'''Parental leave''', or '''family leave''', is an employee benefit available in almost all countries.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/u-s-behind-world-parental-leave-policy-study-papua-new-guinea-swaziland-u-s-lag-article-1.134271|title=U.S. behind most of world in parental leave policy: study; Papua New Guinea, Swaziland & U.S. lag|newspaper=Daily News|location=New York|date=24 December 2011}}</ref> The term "parental leave" may include maternity, paternity, and [[Social:Adoption|adoption]] leave; or may be used distinctively from "maternity leave" and "paternity leave" to describe separate family leave available to either parent to care for small children.<ref name="Ruhm">{{Cite journal |last=Ruhm |first=Christopher J. |s2cid=51297709 |title=The Economic Consequences of Parental Leave Mandates: Lessons from Europe |journal=[[Finance:Quarterly Journal of Economics|Quarterly Journal of Economics]] |volume=113 |issue=1 |year=1998 |pages=285–317 |doi=10.1162/003355398555586 |url=http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/C_Ruhm_Economic_1998.pdf }}</ref> In some countries and jurisdictions, "family leave" also includes leave provided to care for ill family members. Often, the minimum benefits and eligibility requirements are stipulated by law.

Unpaid parental or family leave is provided when an employer is required to hold an employee's job while that employee is taking leave. Paid parental or family leave provides paid time off work to care for or make arrangements for the welfare of a child or dependent family member. The three most common models of funding are government-mandated social insurance/social security (where employees, employers, or taxpayers in general contribute to a specific public fund), employer liability (where the employer must pay the employee for the length of leave), and mixed policies that combine both [[Social:Social security|social security]] and [[Social:Vicarious liability|employer liability]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Addati|first=Laura|date=1 January 2015|title=Extending maternity protection to all women: Trends, challenges and opportunities|journal=International Social Security Review|volume=68|issue=1|pages=69–93|doi=10.1111/issr.12060|issn=1468-246X}}</ref>

Parental leave has been available as a legal right or governmental program for many years in one form or another. In 2014, the International Labour Organization reviewed parental leave policies in 185 countries and territories, and found that all countries except Papua New Guinea have laws mandating some form of parental leave.<ref>International Labour Organization. (2014). [http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_242615.pdf Maternity and Paternity at Work: Law and Practice Across the World].</ref> A different study showed that of 186 countries examined, 96% offered some pay to mothers during leave, but only 44% of those countries offered the same for fathers.<ref name="auto2">{{cite web|last1=Gualt|first1=Barbara|last2=Hartmann|first2=Heidi|last3=Hegewisch|first3=Ariane|last4=Milli|first4=Jessica|last5=Reichlin|first5=Lindsey|title=Paid Parental Leave in the United States|url=https://www.dol.gov/wb/resources/paid_parental_leave_in_the_united_states.pdf|publisher=Institute for Women's Policy Research|access-date=27 January 2017|archive-date=30 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930133630/https://www.dol.gov/wb/resources/paid_parental_leave_in_the_united_states.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Tonga and the {{wipe|United States}} are the only seven countries in the {{wipe|United Nations}} that do not require employers to provide paid time off for new parents.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/2016/10/06/495839588/countries-around-the-world-beat-the-u-s-on-paid-parental-leave |title=Countries Around The World Beat The U.S. On Paid Parental Leave |last=Deahl |first=Jessica |newspaper=NPR.org |publisher=NPR |date=6 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Is paid leave available for both parents of infants?|url=https://www.worldpolicycenter.org/policies/is-paid-leave-available-for-both-parents-of-infants|access-date=2023-08-04|website=World Policy Analysis Center|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wbl.worldbank.org/content/dam/documents/wbl/2021/snapshots/Suriname.pdf|title=''Note'': Suriname is the latest country to introduce paid leave|accessdate=30 July 2023}}</ref> Private employers sometimes provide either or both unpaid and paid parental leave outside of or in addition to any legal mandate.

Research has linked paid parental leave to better health outcomes for children,<ref name=":18" /> as well as mothers.<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last1=Bütikofer|first1=Aline|last2=Riise|first2=Julie|last3=Skira|first3=Meghan M.|date=2021|title=The Impact of Paid Maternity Leave on Maternal Health|url=https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/pol.20190022|journal=American Economic Journal: Economic Policy|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67–105|doi=10.1257/pol.20190022|s2cid=234033258|issn=1945-7731|via=}}</ref>

== Economic models ==

=== Benefits of universal, paid parental leave ===

==== Capabilities approach ====
Amartya Sen and [[Biography:Martha Nussbaum|Martha Nussbaum]] have developed a political model known as the [[Social:Capability approach|capabilities approach]], where basic freedoms and opportunities are included in economic assessments of a country's well-being, in addition to [[Finance:Gross domestic product|GDP]].<ref>Sen, Amartya. 1999. Development as Freedom. New York: Anchor Books.</ref><ref name="Nussbaum">Nussbaum, Martha. 2011. Creating Capabilities: The Human Development Approach. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 34</ref> Nussbaum proposed [[Social:Capability approach#Nussbaum's central capabilities|11 central capabilities]] as the minimum requirement for a decent society. In Nussbaum's model, states should provide the resources and freedoms to ensure people have the opportunity to achieve a minimum threshold of each central capability. Universal, paid parental leave is an example resource states can provide so people have the option of starting a family while also working; for instance, under [[Social:Capability approach#Nussbaum's central capabilities|capacity 10 (control of one's environment)]], the state has a responsibility to ensure all people have "the right to seek employment on an equal basis with others."<ref name="Nussbaum"/>

==== Income and workforce ====
Paid parental leave incentivizes labor market attachment for women both before and after birth, affecting GDP and national productivity, as the workforce is larger.<ref name="Geyer1">{{cite journal|url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/diw/diwwpp/dp1366.html|title=The Effects of Family Policy on Mothers' Labor Supply: Combining Evidence from a Structural Model and a Natural Experiment|first1=Johannes|last1=Geyer|first2=Peter|last2=Haan|first3=Katharina|last3=Wrohlich|journal=Discussion Papers of Diw Berlin |date=1 January 2014|via=RePEc – IDEAS}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kluve | first1 = J. | last2 = Tamm | first2 = M. | s2cid = 6446330 | year = 2013 | title = Parental Leave Regulations, Mothers' Labor Force Attachment and Fathers' Childcare Involvement: Evidence from a Natural Experiment | journal = Journal of Population Economics | volume = 26 | issue = 3| pages = 983–1005 | doi = 10.1007/s00148-012-0404-1 | hdl = 10419/149390 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref name=":1"/><ref>Note: Rønsen & Kitterød, in their literature review on p. 60, reference several other citations to this same point, q.v., Marit Rønsen and Marianne Sundstrøm [1996]; Jutta M. Joesch [1997]; Christopher J. Ruhm [1998]; JaneWaldfogel, Yoshio Higuchi, and Masahiro Abe [1999]; Chiara Daniela Pronzato [2009]. These could be added</ref> Parental leave increases income at the household level as well by supporting [[Social:Working parent#Working mothers|dual-earner families]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Esping-Andersen | first1 = G | s2cid = 143983889 | year = 2003 | title = Women in the New Welfare Equilibrium | journal = The European Legacy | volume = 8 | issue = 5| pages = 599–610 | doi=10.1080/1084877032000153975}}</ref>

Paid parental leave incentivizes childbirth, which affects the future workforce. It is thus argued that paid parental leave, in contrast to unpaid parental leave, is harmful to children's welfare because in countries with an aging workforce or countries with sub-replacement fertility, children are born not because the parents want the child and can meet the child's needs but because children are expected to support their parents. Some see children as responsible for supporting all those in older generations in the society (not just the child's specific parents); their earnings are expected not to be saved for the children's own old age, but to be spent on the earlier generations' demand for social security and [[Finance:Pension|pension]]s for which there was inadequate savings.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bittman | first1 = M | year = 1999 | title = Parenthood Without Penalty: Time Use And Public Policy in Australia And Finland | journal = Feminist Economics | volume = 5 | issue = 3| pages = 27–42 | doi = 10.1080/135457099337798 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Esping-Andersen | first1 = G | s2cid = 143983889 | year = 2003 | title = Women in the New Welfare Equilibrium | journal = The European Legacy | volume = 8 | issue = 5| page = 606 | doi = 10.1080/1084877032000153975 }}</ref>

=== Challenges to universal, paid leave ===

==== Statistical discrimination ====
The [[Finance:Labour economics#Neoclassical microeconomics of labour markets|neoclassical model of labor markets]] predicts that, if the cost of hiring women of child-bearing years is anticipated to increase (either because the employer is mandated to pay for maternity leave or because she will be absent from work on public leave), then the "demand" for women in the labor market will decrease. While gender discrimination is illegal, without some kind of remedy the neoclassical model would predict "statistical discrimination" against hiring women of child-bearing years.<ref>Akerlof, G. A., & Kranton, R. E. (2010). Identity Economics: How Our Identities Shape Our Work, Wages, and Well-Being. Princeton: Princeton University Press</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Esping-Andersen | first1 = G | s2cid = 143983889 | year = 2003 | title = Women in the New Welfare Equilibrium | journal = The European Legacy | volume = 8 | issue = 5| pages = 599–610 | doi = 10.1080/1084877032000153975 }}</ref> To counteract this, some countries have introduced policies to increase rates of paternity leave to spread the cost impact more evenly across the labor market.<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/paid-parental-leave-including-mandatory-paternity-leave|title=Paid parental leave, including mandatory paternity leave {{!}} Human Development Reports|website=hdr.undp.org|date=17 March 2016 |access-date=26 June 2019|last1=Nations |first1=United }}</ref>

==== Occupational sex segregation ====
If women take long parental leaves, the neoclassical model would predict that their lifetime earnings and opportunities for promotion will be less than their male or childfree counterparts—the "[[Finance:Motherhood penalty|motherhood penalty]]".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Theunisse | first1 = G. | last2 = Verbruggen | first2 = M. | last3 = Forrier | first3 = A. | last4 = Sels | first4 = L. | year = 2011 | title = Career Sidestep, Wage Setback? The Impact of Different Types of Employment Interruptions on Wages | journal = Gender, Work & Organization | volume = 18 | pages = e110–e131 | doi = 10.1111/j.1468-0432.2009.00471.x }}</ref> Women may seek out employment sectors that are "family-friendly" (i.e., with generous parental leave policies), resulting in occupational sex segregation.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Datta Gupta | first1 = N. | last2 = Smith | first2 = N. | last3 = Verner | first3 = M. | s2cid = 56077457 | year = 2008 | title = The Impact of Nordic Countries' Family Friendly Policies on Employment, Wages, and Children | journal = Review of Economics of the Household | volume = 6 | issue = 1| pages = 65–89 | doi=10.1007/s11150-007-9023-0}}</ref> Nielsen, Simonsen, and Verner examine what the different outcomes for women in {{wipe|Denmark}} are between the "family-friendly" and the "non-family-friendly" sector.<ref name="Geyer1"/> In {{wipe|Denmark}}, the [[Social:Public sector|public sector]] is "family-friendly" because of its generous leave and employee benefits; workers decide which sector to work in based on their preferences and opportunities. The study found that, while in the "family-friendly" sector there was basically no wage loss related to taking parental leave, women did have consistent earnings loss in the "non-family-friendly" private sector for one year's leave.<ref name="Geyer1"/>

==== Cost ====
Universal, paid parental leave can be privately funded (i.e., corporations are mandated to absorb the cost of paid parental time off as part of employee benefits) or publicly funded (i.e., transferred directly to workers on leave, like unemployment insurance). Concerns about private funding include the statistical discrimination described above as well as the costs to smaller businesses. Datta Gupta, Smith, & Verneer found in 2008 that, while publicly funded parental leave has benefits, it is very expensive to fund and question if it is the most [[Cost-effectiveness analysis|cost-effective]] use of funds.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Datta Gupta | first1 = N. | last2 = Smith | first2 = N. | last3 = Verner | first3 = M. | s2cid = 56077457 | year = 2008 | title = PERSPECTIVE ARTICLE: The impact of Nordic countries' family friendly policies on employment, wages, and children | journal = Review of Economics of the Household | volume = 6 | issue = 1| pages = 65–89 | doi=10.1007/s11150-007-9023-0}}</ref>

==== Criticism of the 'father quota' ====
The father's quota is a policy implemented by some countries or companies that reserves a part of the parental leave or other types of family leave for the father. If the father does not take this reserved part of leave, the family loses that leave period—that is, it cannot be transferred to the mother.<ref>{{Cite book |doi = 10.1332/policypress/9781447310471.001.0001|title = Fatherhood in the Nordic Welfare states|year = 2014|isbn = 9781447310471|last1 = Eydal|first1 = Gu?n? Bj"rk|last2 = Rostgaard|first2 = Tine}}</ref> Given the high rates of women's participation in the formal labor force in many parts of the world, there is increasing interest among social scientists and policymakers in supporting a more equal division of labor between partners. Some critics question whether such policies are evidence-based and express concern that they are "a social experiment, the effects of which are unknown".<ref name="aftenposten2291665">{{cite news|url=http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/iriks/article2291665.ece|title=Kvinner er mer opptatt av barna sine enn menn, sier forsker|newspaper=Aftenposten|access-date=22 June 2011}}</ref> However, other studies have shown that paternity leave improves bonds between fathers and children and also helps mitigate the wage gap women face after taking maternity leave.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://business.linkedin.com/talent-solutions/blog/hr/2018/mandatory-paternity-leave-the-next-must-have-benefit|title=Mandatory Paternity Leave: The Next Must-Have Benefit?|website=business.linkedin.com|access-date=26 June 2019}}</ref> Other psychological perspectives summarise evidence and find that the role of a father in child development is very similar to that of a mother, counteracting the concern that greater paternal involvement in childcare could lead to unforeseen negative consequences.<ref>Lamb, Michael E. (2010) The Role of the Father in Child Development. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons</ref> Criticism is often less concerned about the idea of paternity leave itself, but condemns the fact that father's quota policies do not allow that time to be allocated to the mother instead. Critics argue that the quota harms mothers, depriving them of much needed leave, trivializes biological realities, and is an example of discrimination against mothers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kvinnesak.no/2015/10/venstre-krav-for-likestilling-likedeling-av-foreldrepermisjonen-diskriminering-av-mor-og-barn/|title=Likedeling av foreldrepermisjonen er diskriminering av mor og barn|date=21 October 2015|website=Norsk Kvinnesaksforening|language=nb-NO|access-date=26 June 2019}}</ref>

In the European Union, non-transferable parental leave remains a controversial issue.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1177/1358229118788458|title=The evolution of gender equality and related employment policies|year=2018|last1=Busby|first1=Nicole|journal=International Journal of Discrimination and the Law|volume=18|issue=2–3|pages=104–123|s2cid=149870156|doi-access=free}}</ref> It was first introduced by the Parental Leave Directive 2010, which required at least one month of the minimum four months of parental leave be non-nontransferable; this non-transferable period was increased to two months by the Work–Life Balance Directive of 2019, which must be transposed by member states at the latest on 2 August 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ibanet.org/Article/NewDetailPreview.aspx?ArticleUid=9ea8ade6-022a-4f0b-bba2-6860ad994191|title=IBA - New EU Directive seeks to address employees' work–life balance|website=www.ibanet.org}}</ref> Originally, the plan under the Work–Life Balance Directive was to increase the non-transferable period to four months, but due to inability to reach consensus among member states, a compromise was reached at two months.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coface-eu.org/europe/reaction-epsco-work-life-balance-directive/|title=What is left of the ambitious proposal for an EU Work–Life Balance Directive? &#124; COFACE|first=Isabell|last=Wutz}}</ref><ref>{{CELEX|32019L1158|text=Directive (EU) 2019/1158 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019 on work-life balance for parents and carers and repealing Council Directive 2010/18/EU}}</ref> (note: this refers to the specific type of leave called parental leave, under EU law there are different types of leave, such as maternity leave, paternity leave, parental leave, and carer leave which are regulated differently).

For more, see Paternity leave and its effects.

=== Comparison between countries ===
Comparison between countries in term of employee benefits to leave for parents are often attempted, but these are very difficult to make because of the complexity of types of leave available and because terms such as maternity leave, paternity leave, pre-natal leave, post-natal leave, parental leave, family leave and home-care leave, have different meanings in different jurisdictions. Such terms may often be used incorrectly. Comparing the length of ''maternity leave'' (which is common in international rankings) may say very little about the situation of a family in a specific country. A country for example may have a long maternity leave but a short (or non-existent) parental or family leave, or vice versa.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.novinite.com/articles/187207/CNN%3A+The+world%27s+Longest+Paid+Motherhood+is+in+Bulgaria|title=CNN: The world's Longest Paid Motherhood is in Bulgaria – Novinite.com – Sofia News Agency|website=novinite.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://eng.lsm.lv/article/society/society/family-leave-in-latvia-among-the-worlds-best.a283417/ | title=Family leave in Latvia – among the world's best}}</ref> In the [[Social:European Union|European Union]], each country has its own policies, which vary significantly, but all the EU members must abide by the minimum standards of the Pregnant Workers Directive and Work–Life Balance Directive.<ref name="auto3">{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/aid-development-cooperation-fundamental-rights/your-rights-eu/know-your-rights/equality_en|title=Equality|website=European Commission – European Commission}}</ref>

Sometimes there is a distortion in how maternity leave is reported and delimitated from other types of leave, especially in jurisdictions where there is no clear legal term of "maternity leave", and such term is used informally to denote either the minimum or the maximum period of parental leave reserved by quota to the mother.<ref name="leavenetwork.org">{{cite web|author1=Berit Brandth|author2=Elin Kvande|website=leavenetwork.org
|url=https://www.leavenetwork.org/fileadmin/user_upload/k_leavenetwork/country_notes/2018/FINAL.Norway2018.pdf |title=Norway|date=April 2018
|access-date=30 July 2023}}</ref> Some countries may be listed artificially as having more or less generous benefits. Sweden is sometimes listed in international statistics as having 480 days' "maternity leave",<ref>{{cite web | url=http://data.un.org/DocumentData.aspx?id=344 |title = Maternity leave benefits}}</ref> although these days include parental leave. As such, Sweden is often quoted as having an exceptionally long leave, although there are several countries with significantly longer leave, when maternity leave and other leaves are added, where a parent may take leave until a child is 3 years of age.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm |isbn = 9789221286301|title = Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world|date = 13 May 2014|last1 = Addati|first1 = Laura|last2 = Cassirer|first2 = Naomi|last3 = Gilchrist|first3 = Katherine| publisher=International Labour Office }}</ref>

== Parental leave uptake ==
=== Peer effects ===
Research has demonstrated that the duration of parental leave among individuals is influenced by peer behaviour.<ref name=":110">{{cite journal|last1=Welteke|first1=Clara|last2=Wrohlich|first2=Katharina|date=2016|title=Peer Effects in Parental Leave Decisions|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2830386|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2830386|s2cid=139085694|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> For example, if a mother notices a coworker opting for a longer parental leave, the probability of her to also increase their maternity leave increases. Welteke and Worhlich (2019)<ref name=":110" /> article found that expectant mother's who had peers taking parental leave of longer than ten months were thirty percent more likely to also take more than ten months off compared to expectant parents whose peers took a shorter leave. The influence of peer effects is not solely present to expectant mothers but also fathers. Research in Norway found that expectant fathers were 11 percent more likely to take paternity leave if they witnessed their coworkers use this benefit.<ref name=":03">{{cite journal|last1=Dahl|first1=Gordon|last2=Løken|first2=Katrine|last3=Mogstad|first3=Magne|date=2014|title=Peer Effects in Program Participation|journal=American Economic Review|location=Cambridge, MA|doi=10.3386/w18198|s2cid=244373597 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In addition to coworkers, expectant fathers were 15 percent more likely to use paternity leave if their brother also utilized the program.<ref name=":03" /> Dahl et al., (2014)<ref name=":03" /> research additionally found a snowball effect occurring in workplaces where fathers using paternity leave.This means with every additional coworker utilizing benefits of parental leave in the office, the likelihood of others to also use the program benefits.<ref name=":03" /><ref name=":28">{{cite journal|last=Banerjee|first=Abhijit V.|date=1992|title=A Simple Model of Herd Behavior|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2118364|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|volume=107|issue=3|pages=797–817|doi=10.2307/2118364|jstor=2118364|s2cid=154723838 |issn=0033-5533}}</ref>

There are competing arguments to why peers have an influence to the duration of paternal leave of an expecting parent. The first hypothesis stems from mothers learning from their peers about parental leave programs they were previously unaware of. This increase in awareness would lead to more mothers utilizing parental leave for a longer duration. A competing hypothesis states that when coworkers increase their pregnancy leave, there becomes a change in the social norms of that workplace.<ref name=":110" /> This phenomenon is known as "herd behaviour" in which an alteration of the traditional habits in the workplace shifted the behaviour of the employees.<ref name=":28" />

=== Uptake of parental leave for fathers ===
Several factors influence the uptake of parental leave by expectant fathers. For example, research has found that fathers who had a secondary education were 28% more likely to take parental leave programs longer than fathers who did not receive secondary education. Furthermore, fathers with a tertiary education were 67% more likely to take parental leave of longer than two months than dads with secondary education.<ref name=":32">{{cite journal|last1=MA|first1=LI|last2=ANDERSSON|first2=GUNNAR|last3=DUVANDER|first3=ANN-ZOFIE|last4=EVERTSSON|first4=MARIE|date=2019-05-21|title=Fathers' Uptake of Parental Leave: Forerunners and Laggards in Sweden, 1993–2010|journal=Journal of Social Policy|volume=49|issue=2|pages=361–381|doi=10.1017/s0047279419000230|s2cid=182257694|issn=0047-2794|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Additionally, the Income levels of fathers have been noted to influence the uptake of fathers' parental leave. Low-income fathers are less likely to use parental leave, and if they did take off time, it is shorter in duration than fathers with higher income.<ref name=":32" /> The discrepancies between the two demographics may be due to fathers with lower incomes being restricted by a more unstable labour market. Fathers in different-sex relationships are even less likely to use parental leave if the mother has a low income.<ref name=":32" /> The mother's low income positively correlates with the father taking little to no parental leave. This may be due to the father wanting the mother to take a longer leave themselves or other factors such as the pressures to provide for the household economically.<ref name=":42">{{cite journal|last=Kaufman|first=Gayle|date=2017-03-24|title=Barriers to equality: why British fathers do not use parental leave|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2017.1307806|journal=Community, Work & Family|volume=21|issue=3|pages=310–325|doi=10.1080/13668803.2017.1307806|s2cid=152090151|issn=1366-8803}}</ref>

Research in Sweden found that foreign-born fathers are less likely to partake in parental programs than native-born fathers.<ref name=":32" /> The authors have theorized that this result might reflect greater instability of labour markets for first-generation migrants. Additionally, there is a greater likelihood for first-generation immigrants to lack access to information concerning parental leave can contribute to the decrease in uptake from this demographic.

Another aspect that influences the uptake of parental leave is gender dynamics at home and work.<ref name=":42" /> In households with a positive association between fatherhood involvement and egalitarian values, the father utilization of parental leave is increased. Workplace environments that promote parental leave for fathers as essential create a greater likelihood of these dads taking parental leave for a longer duration. In contrast, a workplace culture that views paternal leave as an indicator of poor work habits and as "feminine" causes fathers in that environment to be less likely to participate in parental leave.<ref name=":42" /> In Australia it has been argued, by Georgie Dent. that the uptake of parental leave by fathers could enable the workforce participation of women, leading to improved economic outcomes for families as well as the Nation.

=== Eligibility and uptake of parental leave for mothers ===
The eligibility and uptake of parental leave programs are not consistent among all demographics of expecting mothers. In most European countries, parental leave is granted to parents, usually after maternity and paternity leave. In some countries, parental leave has more restrictive requirements than maternity leave or paternity leave. 
Research by Marynissen, Wood and Neels (2021)<ref name=":52">{{Cite journal|last1=Marynissen|first1=Leen|last2=Wood|first2=Jonas|last3=Neels|first3=Karel|date=2021-06-11|title=Mothers and Parental Leave in Belgium: Social Inequalities in Eligibility and Uptake|journal=Social Inclusion|volume=9|issue=2|pages=325–337|doi=10.17645/si.v9i2.3834|s2cid=236300549|issn=2183-2803|doi-access=free}}</ref> found that 26.37% of mothers in Belgium are not eligible for parental leave. This is due to the employment-based eligibility criteria present with the country's parental leave program (although unemployed women receive maternity leave).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1102&langId=en&intPageId=4415|title=Belgium - Employment, Social Affairs & Inclusion - European Commission|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref> By utilizing an employment-based measure, scholars have noted that this creates barriers for currently unemployed mothers to receive an opportunity to take more time off looking for a job and care for their child.<ref name=":62">{{Cite journal|last1=Dobrotić|first1=Ivana|last2=Blum|first2=Sonja|date=2019-06-25|title=Inclusiveness of Parental-Leave Benefits in Twenty-One European Countries: Measuring Social and Gender Inequalities in Leave Eligibility|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxz023|journal=Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society|volume=27|issue=3|pages=588–614|doi=10.1093/sp/jxz023|issn=1072-4745}}</ref> Another limitation present with employment-based criteria is that in some countries self-employed individuals are not eligible for certain parental benefits.<ref name=":62" /> For example, in Belgium, a self-employed woman receives a maternity leave that is shorter and lower paid than an employed woman; and does not receive parental leave.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.leavenetwork.org/fileadmin/user_upload/k_leavenetwork/annual_reviews/2019/Belgium_2019_0824.pdf|title=Belgium|date=April 2019|author1=Bernard Fusulier|author2=Dimitri Mortelmans|website=leavenetwork.org|access-date=30 July 2023}}</ref> There are also a certain number of hours an employee must meet before being eligible for employment-based parental leave.<ref name=":29">{{cite journal|last1=Dobrotić|first1=Ivana|last2=Blum|first2=Sonja|date=2019-06-25|title=Inclusiveness of Parental-Leave Benefits in Twenty-One European Countries: Measuring Social and Gender Inequalities in Leave Eligibility|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxz023|journal=Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society|volume=27|issue=3|pages=588–614|doi=10.1093/sp/jxz023|issn=1072-4745}}</ref> These various factors limit access to parental care for expecting mothers. Expecting parents who are the most affected by this criteria are usually younger, single, less educated or from migrant backgrounds.<ref name=":52" />

In addition to discrepancies present in eligibility, there is variation among expecting mothers who utilize parental leave benefits. For example, research performed by Kil, Wood and Neels(2018)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kil|first1=Tine|last2=Wood|first2=Jonas|last3=Neels|first3=Karel|date=2017-06-20|title=Parental leave uptake among migrant and native mothers: Can precarious employment trajectories account for the difference?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1468796817715292|journal=Ethnicities|volume=18|issue=1|pages=106–141|doi=10.1177/1468796817715292|hdl=10067/1440900151162165141|s2cid=148650202|issn=1468-7968|hdl-access=free}}</ref> found that native-born Belgian women had higher uptake of parental programs (52%) in comparison to first-generation Belgian citizens from Turkey and Morocco, whose uptake was relatively low (34%). The difference in uptake can be attributed to factors such as the flexibility of the parental leave, culture of the workplace, cultural ideals of paid leave, not knowing about the program itself and other normative factors that influenced the utilization of paid leave.<ref name=":52" />

Research has found that mothers in same-sex relationships are less likely to uptake parental leave than mothers in different-sex relationships.<ref name=":72">{{cite journal|last1=Evertsson|first1=Marie|last2=Boye|first2=Katarina|date=2018-07-20|title=The Transition to Parenthood and the Division of Parental Leave in Different-Sex and Female Same-Sex Couples in Sweden|journal=European Sociological Review|volume=34|issue=5|pages=471–485|doi=10.1093/esr/jcy027|issn=0266-7215|doi-access=free}}</ref> Evertsson and Boye (2018)<ref name=":72" /> found that birth mothers in same-sex relationships, on average, took seven weeks less parental leave than birth mothers in different-sex relationships. The authors reference that gender norms result in the difference between parental uptake duration between birth mothers in same-sex relationships compared to different-sex relationships.<ref name=":72" />

=== Eligibility of parental leave for same sex couples ===
Eligibility of parental leave for same sex couples depends on numerous factors: on adoption policies (on whether or not same-sex couples can adopt jointly or not; on whether a single parent is allowed to adopt or not - and if yes, whether the second parent can subsequently adopt - and on surrogacy laws). 
According to a study that examined policies in 34 OECD countries, in nineteen of these countries, same sex female couples received the same amount of parental leave benefits as different sex couples.<ref name=":83">{{cite journal|last1=WONG|first1=ELIZABETH|last2=JOU|first2=JUDY|last3=RAUB|first3=AMY|last4=HEYMANN|first4=JODY|date=2019-09-05|title=Comparing the availability of paid parental leave for same-sex and different-sex couples in 34 OECD countries|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0047279419000643|journal=Journal of Social Policy|volume=49|issue=3|pages=525–545|doi=10.1017/s0047279419000643|s2cid=203085632|issn=0047-2794}}</ref> 
For same-sex male couples, four countries provided the same duration of parental leave as different sex couples. Therefore, twenty-nine OECD countries provided a shorter period of parental leave and fewer benefits for same-sex male parents. In addition, some countries, such as Turkey and Israel, provided no parental leave benefits or paid leave for the expectant male parents.<ref name=":83"/>

The reason for discrepancies in parental leave between same-sex and different-sex couples is theorized to have several different explanations, usually related to who can be a legal parent. One factor affecting parental leave duration for same-sex couples is the restrictive language found in parental leave policies. The study found that some parental leave policies only referred to heterosexual couples and did not include same-sex couples in the legislation, leading to increased barriers for same-sex parents to receive paid leave. Another significant barrier comes when same-sex couples try adopting their child. In 15 of the 34 OECD countries examined, same sex couples cannot legally adopt a child together. In these countries, same-sex couples may have one person in the relationship adopt their child as a single parent.<ref name=":83"/> Only one parent will be provided parental or adoption-related leave through this adoption strategy. While there is an option of second-parent adoption in some of these 15 countries, the process of a second adoption is costly and time-consuming- creating potential barriers that restrict the same-sex couple from pursuing this procedure. In some countries, same-sex parents can only be formed through a birth mother in a lesbian relation (considered legally a single mother), so the second mother does not receive leave.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Chang|first1=Ailsa|last2=Simmons-Duffin|first2=Selena|title=Same-Sex Spouses Turn To Adoption To Protect Parental Rights|language=en|work=NPR.org|url=https://www.npr.org/2017/09/22/551814731/same-sex-spouses-turn-to-adoption-to-protect-parental-rights|access-date=2021-12-10}}</ref>

==International minimum standards==
The Maternity Protection Convention, 2000 requires at least 14 weeks of maternity leave. In the [[Social:European Union|European Union]], the Pregnant Workers Directive requires at least 14 weeks of maternity leave; while the Work–Life Balance Directive requires at least 10 days of paternity leave, as well as at least 4 months of parental leave, with 2 months being non-transferable.

== Effects ==
Typically, the effects of parental leave are improvements in prenatal and postnatal care, including a decrease in infant mortality.<ref name="Motherhood Manifesto">{{cite book |last1=Blades |first1=Joan |first2=Kristin |last2=Rowe-Finkbeiner |year=2006 |title=The Motherhood Manifesto: What America's Moms Want and What to Do about It |location=New York |publisher=Nation |isbn=978-1-56025-884-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/motherhoodmanife00blad }}</ref> The effects of parental leave on the labor market include an increase in employment, changes in wages, and fluctuations in the rate of employees returning to work. Leave legislation can also impact fertility rates.<ref name="Utrecht">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1093/cje/bes052| title = Labour market effects of parental leave in Europe| journal = [[Finance:Cambridge Journal of Economics|Cambridge Journal of Economics]]| volume = 37| issue = 4| pages = 845–862| year = 2012| last1 = Akgunduz | first1 = Y. E.| last2 = Plantenga | first2 = J.| hdl = 10.1093/cje/bes052| hdl-access = free}}</ref>

=== On the labor market ===
A study in Germany found that wages decreased by 18 percent for every year an employee spends on parental leave.<ref name="Utrecht"/> However, after the initial decrease in wages, the employee's salary rebounds faster than the salary of someone not offered parental leave.<ref name="Utrecht"/> A study of California's leave policy, the first state in the U.S. to require employers to offer paid parental leave, showed that wages did increase.<ref name="NBER">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1002/pam.21676| pmid = 23547324| title = The Effects of California's Paid Family Leave Program on Mothers' Leave-Taking and Subsequent Labor Market Outcomes| journal = [[Finance:Journal of Policy Analysis and Management|Journal of Policy Analysis and Management]]| volume = 32| issue = 2| pages = 224–245| year = 2013| last1 = Rossin-Slater | first1 = M.| last2 = Ruhm | first2 = C. J.| last3 = Waldfogel | first3 = J.| pmc = 3701456| citeseerx = 10.1.1.704.5350}}</ref>

Parental leave can lead to greater job security.<ref name="Utrecht"/> Studies differ in how this helps return to work after taking time off. Some studies show that if a parent is gone for more than a year after the birth of a child, it decreases the possibility that he or she will return.<ref name="Utrecht"/> Other studies of shorter leave periods show that parents no longer need to quit their jobs in order to care for their children, so employment return increases.<ref name="NBER"/>

It does not appear that parental leave policies have had a significant effect on the gender wage gap, which has remained relatively steady since the late 1980s, despite increasing adoption of parental leave policies.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | last1 = Rønsen | first1 = M. | last2 = Kitterød | first2 = R. H. | s2cid = 154808826 | year = 2015 | title = Gender-equalizing family policies and mothers' entry into paid work: recent evidence from Norway | journal = Feminist Economics | volume = 10 | issue = 1| pages = 59–89 | doi=10.1080/13545701.2014.927584}}</ref>

==== Maternity leave and its effects ====

In the U.S., while the [[Medicine:Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993|Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993]] (FMLA) allows for unpaid parental leave, parents often do not utilize this eligibility to its fullest extent as it is unaffordable. As a result, some studies show that the FMLA has had a limited impact on how much leave new parents take.<ref name="HanWaldfogel">{{cite journal|last2=Waldfogel|first2=J.|year=2003|title=Parental Leave: The Impact of Recent Legislation on Parents' Leave-Taking|journal=Demography|volume=40|issue=1|pages=191–200|doi=10.1353/dem.2003.0003|pmid=12647520|last1=Han|first1=W.-J.|s2cid=22696348|doi-access=free}}</ref> Though specific amounts can vary, having a child (including the cost of high-quality childcare) costs families approximately $11,000 in the first year.<ref name="Miller"/> These high costs contribute to new mothers in the United States returning to work quicker than new mothers in European countries; approximately one third of women in the United States return to work within three months of giving birth, compared to approximately five per cent in the U.K., Germany, and Sweden,<ref>Berger, L.M., [[Biography:Jennifer Hill|Hill, J.]] et al. 2005. "Maternity Leave, Early Maternal Employment and Child Health Development in the US." ''The Economic Journal''. 115(501):F29-F47.</ref> and just over half of mothers in the United States with a child under the age of one work.<ref>(Johnson 2007)</ref>

There is some evidence that legislation for parental leave raises the likelihood of women returning to their previous jobs as opposed to finding a new job. This rise is thought to fall to between 10% and 17%. Simultaneously, there is a decrease in the percentage of women who find new jobs, which falls between 6% and 11%. Thus, such legislation appears to increase how many women return to work post-childbirth by around 3% or 4%.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Baum II|first=Charles L.|date=April 2003|title=The Effects of Maternity Leave Legislation on Mothers' Labor Supply after Childbirth|jstor=1061651|journal=Southern Economic Journal|volume=69|issue=4|pages=772–799|doi=10.2307/1061651}}</ref>

Additionally, it appears that parental leave policies do allow women to stay home longer before returning to work as the probability of returning to an old job falls in the second month after childbirth before dramatically rising in the third month. Although this legislation thus appears to have minimal effect on women choosing to take leave, it does appear to increase the time women take in leave.<ref name=":0"/>

Maternity leave legislation could pose benefits or harm to employers. The main potential drawback of mandated leave is its potential to disrupt productive activities by raising rates of employee absenteeism. With mandated leave for a certain period of time and facing prolonged absence of the mothers in the workplace, firms will be faced with two options: hire a temp (which could involve training costs) or function with a missing employee. Alternatively, these policies could be positive for employers who previously did not offer leave because they were worried about attracting employees who were disproportionately likely to use maternity leave. Thus, there is potential for these policies to correct [[Finance:Market failure|market failure]]s.<ref name=":0"/> A drawback of rising leave at the societal level, however, is the resulting decrease in female labor supply. In countries with a high demand for labor, including many present-day countries with aging populations, a smaller labor supply is unfavorable.<ref name=":1"/>

Something important to note for all the research cited above is that the results typically depend on how leave coverage is defined, and whether the policies are for unpaid or paid leave. Policies guaranteeing paid leave are considered by some to be dramatically more effective than unpaid-leave policies.<ref name="HanWaldfogel"/>

For women individually, long breaks in employment, as would come from parental leave, negatively affects their careers. Longer gaps are associated with reduced lifetime earnings and lower pension disbursements as well as worsened career prospects and reduced earnings. Due to these drawbacks, some countries, notably Norway, have expanded family policy initiatives to increase the father's quota and expand childcare in an effort to work towards greater gender equality.<ref name=":1"/>

According to a 2016 study, the expansion of government-funded maternity leave in Norway from 18 to 35 weeks led mothers to spend more time at home without a reduction in family income.<ref name="What is the case">{{Cite journal|last1=Dahl|first1=Gordon B.|last2=Løken|first2=Katrine V.|last3=Mogstad|first3=Magne|last4=Salvanes|first4=Kari Vea|s2cid=57565748|date=23 March 2016|title=What Is the Case for Paid Maternity Leave?|journal=Review of Economics and Statistics|volume=98|issue=4|pages=655–670|doi=10.1162/REST_a_00602|issn=0034-6535|hdl=10419/90025|url=http://ekstern.filer.uib.no/svf/2013/WP9.13.pdf}}</ref>
[[File:Girl-1641215 1920.jpg|alt=|thumb|Father spending time with daughter]]

==== Paternity leave and its effects ====
The term 'paternity leave' refers to the leave that is exclusively granted to the fathers to enable them in spending time with their new-born child. Although parental leave is increasingly granted to fathers, mothers continue to take the majority of guaranteed parental leave.<ref name="Ruhm"/> When guaranteed leave is unpaid, research indicates that men's leave usage is unaffected.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Waldfogel|first1=J|last2=Han|first2=WJ|s2cid=22696348|date=February 2003|title=Parental leave: the impact of recent legislation on parents' leave taking|journal= Demography|volume=40|issue=1|pages=191–200|pmid=12647520|doi=10.1353/dem.2003.0003|doi-access=free}}</ref> In Germany, where parental leave is guaranteed for both parents, the financial incentive, alone, was not enough to encourage fathers to take paternal leave.<ref>VOGL, S., & KRELL, C. (2012). PARENTAL LEAVE AND PARENTING BENEFITS: Potential Effects on Father Participation in Germany. ''International Journal of Sociology of the Family,'' ''38''(1), 19–38. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/43488388</ref> While uncommon on a world scale, some countries do reserve parts of the paid leave for the father, meaning it can't be transferred to the mother and lapses unless he uses it. Among the earliest countries to actively push for increased usage of paternity leave are the Nordic welfare states, starting with Sweden making parental leave gender neutral in 1974 and soon followed by Iceland, Denmark, Norway and Finland. These countries lack a unified concept of paternity leave, each imposing different conditions, ratios and timescales, but are regarded as among the most generous in the world.

Partly in an initiative to combat the "motherhood penalty", {{wipe|Norway}} in 1993 initiated a policy change to incentivize paternal leave, the so-called "father's quota", and Sweden followed suit in 1995. This means a certain number of parental leave-days can only be used by the father, and are otherwise lost. In countries in which leave entitlements include a father's quota, there has been a pronounced impact, with the quota being credited for increasing paternal involvement and challenging gender roles within the family, promoting a more equal division of labor.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Ronsen|first1=Marit|last2=Kitterod|first2=Ragni Hege|s2cid=154808826|date=July 2014|title=Gender-Equalizing Family Policies and Mothers' Entry into Paid Work: Recent Evidence from Norway|journal=Feminist Economics|volume=21|pages=59–89|doi=10.1080/13545701.2014.927584}}</ref> To evaluate this change, Rønsen and Kitterød looked at the rate and timing of women's return to work after giving birth, and the effect on this of the new parental leave policy. In their 2015 study, Rønsen and Kitterød found women in Norway returned to work significantly faster after the policy change.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Kitterød|first2=R. H.|year=2015|title=Gender-equalizing family policies and mothers' entry into paid work: recent evidence from Norway|journal=Feminist Economics|volume=21|issue=1|pages=59–89 [84]|last1=Rønsen|first1=M.|s2cid=154808826|doi=10.1080/13545701.2014.927584}}</ref> However, public or subsidized daycare was greatly expanded at the same time, so Rønsen and Kitterød did not find that the "father's quota" was solely responsible for the timing of work entry. But it can be understood to have an effect on [[Social:Division of labour#Gendered division of labour|division of household labor]] by gender when both parents can take time to care for a new baby.<ref name=":1"/>

Another impact from fathers taking more leave is that in Norway it has been shown to have the potential to either decrease or increase the time women take, depending on whether the mother's and father's childcare are seen as [[Finance:Substitute good|substitutes]] or complements. If substitute goods, mothers are able to return to work sooner as fathers take some of the childcare responsibility. Research has suggested a class element is at play: middle class fathers consider themselves a suitable alternative to the mother as primary caregiver, while working-class men may see themselves more as supporters of their partner during her leave. Consequently, middle class fathers may be more likely to use their allotment of leave right after the mother returns to work, while working class fathers may opt to take their leave during the mother's leave.<ref>Brandth, B., & Kvande, E. (2016). Fatherhood in the Nordic Welfare States: Comparing Care Policies and Practice. Bristol, United Kingdom: Policy Press.</ref> In some cases, longer leave for fathers can motivate mothers to also stay home.<ref name=":1"/>

Fathers tend to use less parental leave than mothers in the United States as well as in other countries where paid leave is available,<ref name="HanWaldfogel"/><ref name="Bygren">{{cite journal|last2=Duvander|first2=A.-Z.|year=2006|title=Parents' Workplace Situation and Fathers' Parental Leave Use|url=https://zenodo.org/record/997940|journal=Journal of Marriage and Family|volume=68|issue=2|pages=363–372|doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00258.x|last1=Bygren|first1=M}}</ref> and this difference may have factors other than the financial constraints which impact both parents. Bygren and Duvander,<ref name="Bygren"/> looking at the use of parental leave by fathers in Sweden, concluded that fathers' workplace characteristics (including the size of the workplace, whether there were more men or women in the workplace, and whether the workplace was part of the private or public sector) influenced the length of parental leave for fathers, as did the presence of other men who had taken parental leave at an earlier point in time. As of 2016 paternity leave accounts for 25% of paid parental leave in Sweden.

A 2023 study found that paternity leave causes attitudinal change on gender issues. When paternity leave is made available to fathers, parents increasingly support gender-egalitarian socioeconomic policies and women's rights issues.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tavits |first1=Margit |last2=Schleiter |first2=Petra |last3=Homola |first3=Jonathan |last4=Ward |first4=Dalston |date=2023 |title=Fathers' Leave Reduces Sexist Attitudes |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/fathers-leave-reduces-sexist-attitudes/78DA98DAA6E6B00A302E9DE3EE676E85 |journal=American Political Science Review |pages=1–7 |language=en |doi=10.1017/S0003055423000369 |s2cid=258358469 |issn=0003-0554|hdl=20.500.11850/611685 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==== Length of leave ====
[[File:"WORKING MOTHERS - YOUR SCHOOLS CAN HELP" - NARA - 516193.jpg|thumb|Family policy during World War II when women were recruited into the workplace]]
In 2013, Joseph, Pailhé, Recotillet, and Solaz published a [[Medicine:Natural experiment|natural experiment]] evaluating a 2004 policy change in {{wipe|France}}.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The economic impact of taking short parental leave: Evaluation of a French reform|last1 = Joseph|first1 = Olivier|year = 2013|journal = Labour Economics, 25(European Association of Labour Economists 24th Annual Conference, Bonn, Germany, 20–22 September 2012)|doi = 10.1016/j.labeco.2013.04.012|last2 = Pailhé |volume=25 |pages=63–75}}</ref> They were interested in the economic effects of full-time, short paid parental leave. Before the reform, women had a mandatory two-month parental leave, and could take up to three years' unpaid parental leave with their job guaranteed, though most women only took the two months. The new policy, ''complément libre choix d'activité'' (CLCA), guarantees six months of paid parental leave. The authors found positive effects on employment: compared to women in otherwise similar circumstances before the reform, first-time mothers who took the paid leave after the reform were more likely to be employed after their leave, and less likely to stay out of the labor force. The authors point to similar results of full-time, short paid parental leave observed in Canada in 2008 by Baker and Milligan,<ref>Baker, M., Milligan, K.,2008. How does job-protected maternity leave affect mothers' employment? [https://www.jstor.org/journal/jlaboreconomics Journal of Labor Economics] 26,655–692.</ref> and in Germany in 2009 by Kluve and Tamm.<ref>Kluve, J., Tamm, M.,2009. [http://ftp.iza.org/dp4500.pdf Now daddy's changing diapers and mommy's making her career: evaluating a generous parental leave regulation using a natural experiment]. IZA Discussion Papers 4500. Institute for the Study of Labor(IZA).</ref> However, Joseph {{Lang|la|et al.}} also found that wages were lower (relative to women before the reform) for moderately and highly educated women after the leave, which could be because the women returned to work part-time or because of a "motherhood penalty", where employers discriminate against mothers, taking the six-month leave as a "signal" that the woman will not be as good of an employee because of her mothering responsibilities.

Rasmussen analyzed a similar [[Medicine:Natural experiment|natural experiment]] in Denmark with a policy change in 1984 where parental leave increased from 14 to 20 weeks.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rasmussen | first1 = A. W. | year = 2010 | title = Increasing the length of parents' birth-related leave: The effect on children's long-term educational outcomes | journal = Labour Economics | volume = 17 | pages = 91–100 | doi = 10.1016/j.labeco.2009.07.007 }}</ref> Rasmussen found the increased length of parental leave had no negative effect on women's wages or employment and in the short run (i.e., 12 months) it had a positive effect on women's wages, compared to the shorter leave. There was no difference on children's long-term educational outcomes before and after the policy change.

=== On health and development ===

According to a 2020 study, parental leave leads to better health outcomes for children.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last1=Danzer|first1=Natalia|last2=Halla|first2=Martin|last3=Schneeweis|first3=Nicole|last4=Zweimüller|first4=Martina|date=2020-11-10|title=Parental Leave, (In)formal Childcare and Long-Term Child Outcomes|url=http://jhr.uwpress.org/content/early/2020/11/04/jhr.58.2.0619-10257R1|journal=Journal of Human Resources|volume=57 |issue=6 |language=en|pages=0619–10257R1|doi=10.3368/jhr.58.2.0619-10257R1|s2cid=157124069|issn=0022-166X}}</ref> A Harvard report cited research showing paid maternity leave "facilitates breastfeeding and reduces risk of infection"<ref name="Motherhood Manifesto"/> but is not associated with changes in immunization rate.<ref name=":2"/> This research also found that countries with parental leave had lower infant mortality rates.<ref name="Motherhood Manifesto"/> Returning to work within 12 weeks was also associated with fewer regular medical checkups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berger|first1=Lawrence M.|last2=Hill|first2=Jennifer|last3=Waldfogel|first3=Jane|s2cid=80026676|date=February 2005|title=Maternity leave, early maternal employment and child health and development in the US|journal=The Economic Journal|volume=115|issue=501|pages=F29–F47|doi=10.1111/j.0013-0133.2005.00971.x}}</ref> Data from 16 European countries during the period 1969–1994 revealed that the decrease of infant mortality rates varied based on length of leave. A 10-week leave was associated with a 1–2% decrease; a 20-week leave with 2–4%; and 30 weeks with 7–9%.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ruhm|first=C.|year=2000|title=Parental leave and child health|journal=Journal of Health Economics|volume=19|issue=6|pages=931–60|doi=10.1016/s0167-6296(00)00047-3|pmid=11186852|citeseerx=10.1.1.1021.2259|s2cid=24034206}}</ref> The United States, which does not have a paid parental leave law, ranked 56th in the world in 2014 in terms of infant mortality rates, with 6.17 deaths per every 1,000 children born.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2091rank.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613003931/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2091rank.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 June 2007 |title=The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=21 March 2015}}</ref> The research did not find any infant health benefits in countries with unpaid parental leave. Paid leave, particularly when available prior to childbirth, had a significant effect on birth weight. The frequency of low birth rate decreases under these policies, which likely contributes to the decrease in infant mortality rates as low birth weight is strongly correlated with infant death. However, careful analysis reveals that increased birth weight is not the sole reason for the decreased mortality rate.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Tanaka|first=Sakiko|s2cid=78050964|date=January 2005|title=Parental leave and child health across OECD countries|journal=The Economic Journal|volume=115|issue=501|pages=F7–F28|doi=10.1111/j.0013-0133.2005.00970.x}}</ref>

A 2021 study found that the introduction of paid maternity leave in Norway substantially improved maternal health outcomes, in particular for first-time and low-income mothers.<ref name=":19" />

According to a 2016 study, the expansion of government-funded maternity leave in Norway from 18 to 35 weeks had little effect on children's schooling.<ref name="What is the case"/> However, when infants bond and have their needs met quickly by caregivers (mothers, fathers, etc.) they will become confident and be prepared to have healthy relationships throughout their life.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/medicalcenter/healthtips/20100114_infant-bonding.html|title=Bonding is essential for normal infant development|website=UC Davis Medical Center|last1=Steinfeld|first1=Mary|access-date=27 January 2017}}</ref>

Children whose mothers worked in the first 9 months were found to be less ready for school at the age of 3 years. The effects of mothers' employment appeared to be the most detrimental when employment started between the sixth and ninth month of life. The reasons for this were uncertain, but there is conjecture that there was something unusual for the group of mothers who returned to work in this time period as they represented only 5% of all families studied. Negative impacts in terms of school-readiness were most pronounced when the mother worked at least 30 hours per week. These findings were complicated by many factors, including race, poverty, and how sensitive the mother was considered. The effects were also greater in boys, which is explained by the fact that many analysts consider boys more vulnerable to stress in early life.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks-Gunn|first1=Jeanne|last2=Han|first2=Wen-Jui|last3=Waldfogel|first3=Jane|date=August 2002|title=Maternal Employment and Child Cognitive Outcomes in the First Three Years of Life: The NICHD Study of Early Child Care|journal=Child Development|volume=73|issue=4|pages=1052–1072|doi=10.1111/1467-8624.00457|pmid=12146733}}</ref>

The same Harvard report also linked paid parental leave and a child's psychological health. It found that parents with paid parental leave had closer bonds with their children.<ref name="Motherhood Manifesto"/> Based on research of heterosexual couples, better immersion of the father in the process of raising a child can lead to improved development outcomes for the child and a better relationship between the parents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fira.ca/cms/documents/29/Effects_of_Father_Involvement.pdf|title=Allen, Sarah and Kerry Daly. 2007. The Effects of Father Involvement: An Updated Research Summary of the Evidence. Centre for Families, Work & Well-Being, University of Guelph. Guelph, Ontario. 53 p. (accessed February 3, 2016)|access-date=5 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423031729/http://fira.ca/cms/documents/29/Effects_of_Father_Involvement.pdf|archive-date=23 April 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> In recent years, various OECD countries drew attention to the topic, especially to the time of the parental leave taken by fathers, and concluded that short-term paternal leaves still lead to positive outcomes for the child's development. Families do take into account relative income levels of each parent when planning for parental leave; the partner earning a lower wage may be more likely to take parental leave.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/75-001-x/2008106/article/10639-eng.htm|title=Perspectives on Labour and Income: Fathers' use of paid parental leave|website=www150.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> There is also often workplace pressure on men not to take paternity leave, or to take less than the maximum time allowed. To counteract these pressures and encourage paternity leave, some countries have experimented with making paternity leave mandatory or otherwise incentivizing it.<ref name="auto"/>

There are also observable improvements in the mental health of mothers when they are able to return to work later. While the probability of experiencing postpartum depression had no significant statistical change, longer leave (leave over 10 weeks) was associated with decreased severity of depression and decreased number of experienced symptoms. This reduction was, on average, between 5% and 10%.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chatterji |first1=Pinka |last2=Markowitz |first2=Sara |s2cid=149917144 |title=Does The Length of Maternity Leave Affect Maternal Health? |journal=Southern Economic Journal |year=2005 |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=16–41 |doi=10.2307/20062092 |jstor=20062092 |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w10206.pdf }}</ref>

Studies looking for a connection between paid parental leave have shown conflicting results. Some research looked at women 25–34 years old, who are more likely to be affected by leave legislation. Fertility rates peaked for those between 25–29 and 30–34 across European countries.<ref name="Utrecht"/> Conversely, however, research in Spain found that after the introduction of two weeks of paid paternity leave, fertility rates fell suggesting that, when fathers are more engaged in raising children, they may become more aware of the challenges; their priorities may shift to quality over quantity of children; or that mothers are better able to remain connected to the workforce.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Farré|first1=Lidia|last2=González|first2=Libertad|date=December 2018|title=Does Paternity Leave Reduce Fertility?|url=http://ftp.iza.org/dp12023.pdf|journal=IZA Institute of Labor Economics Discussion Paper Series|volume=IZA DP No. 12023}}</ref>

A study of a 2012 law in Sweden that allowed fathers to take up to 30 days of paid family leave in the first year after the birth of the child at the same time as the mother was on leave led to substantial improvements in the mental and physical health of mothers.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/04/upshot/sweden-finds-a-simple-way-to-improve-new-mothers-health-it-involves-fathers.html|title=Sweden Finds a Simple Way to Improve New Mothers' Health. It Involves Fathers.|last=Miller|first=Claire Cain|date=4 June 2019|work=The New York Times|access-date=4 June 2019|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Persson|first1=Petra|last2=Rossin-Slater|first2=Maya|year=2019|title=When Dad Can Stay Home: Fathers' Workplace Flexibility and Maternal Health|series=Working Paper Series |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w25902|doi=10.3386/w25902|hdl=10419/202732|s2cid=190171309|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

=== On economy ===
The economic consequences of parental leave policies are subject to controversy. According to a 2016 study, the expansion of government-funded maternity leave in Norway from 18 to 35 weeks had net costs that amounted to 0.25% of GDP, negative redistribution properties and implied a considerable increase in taxes at a cost to economic efficiency.<ref name="What is the case"/> In the U.S., paid family leave tends to lead to a higher employee retention rate and higher incomes for families.<ref name="auto2"/> Evidence from selected countries in Western Europe suggests that moderate levels of parental leave can encourage mothers to reenter the work force after having children, promoting national economic development.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Morgan|first1=Kimberly J.|title=Working mothers and the welfare state religion and the politics of work-family policies in Western Europe and the United States|year=2006|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=9780804754132}}</ref>

=== On gender equality ===
[[File:Gender equality symbol.svg|thumb|upright|Symbol for gender equality]]

Parental leave policies have an impact on [[Social:Gender equality|gender equality]] as it relates to parenting and are therefore used by various countries as a tool to promote gender equality.<ref>Elborgh-Woytek, Katrin, Monique Newiak, Kaplana Kochhar, Stefania Fabrizio, Kangni Kopdar, Philippe Wingender, Benedict Clements, and Gerd Schwartz. 2013. Women, Work, and the Economy: Macroeconomic Gains from Gender Equity. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund (September). https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2013/sdn1310.pdf</ref><ref>Aguirre, DeAnne, Leila Hoteit, Christine Rupp, and Karim Sabbagh. 2012. Empowering the Third Billion: Women and the World of Work in 2012. Booz & Company Inc.</ref> Many countries have implemented paid parental leave policies for both parents, while a minority of countries, like the United States, only have unpaid parental leave. A father's quota, which reserves a part of the leave period exclusively for the father, is sometimes assumed to promote gender equality, although the extent and effects are subject to debate.<ref name="norway1" /><ref name="norway2" /><ref name="nrk" /><ref name="isf" />

As more women have joined the formal labor force, the lack of men's participation in parenting has been called out as a key example of gender inequality. Various studies highlight the importance of egalitarian parental leave policies in achieving equal distribution of childcare between parents.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gornick|first1=Janet C.|last2=Meyers|first2=Marcia K.|date=September 2008|title=Creating Gender Egalitarian Societies: An Agenda for Reform|journal=Politics & Society|volume=36|issue=3|pages=313–349|doi=10.1177/0032329208320562|s2cid=154439230|issn=0032-3292}}</ref> Moreover, when discussing parental leave policies, the focus is often on comparing improvements in maternity leave policies to what was available in the past, rather than comparing the impact of diverse policies around the world that distribute parental leave differently between both parents.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal|last1=Castro-García|first1=Carmen|last2=Pazos-Moran|first2=Maria|s2cid=155442384|date=16 October 2015|title=Parental Leave Policy and Gender Equality in Europe|journal=Feminist Economics|volume=22|issue=3|pages=51–73|doi=10.1080/13545701.2015.1082033|issn=1354-5701}}</ref>

Statistics show a positive correlation between maternity leave policies and women's employment, but the causation relationship cannot be firmly established.<ref name=":4"/> While many believe that maternity leave policies encourage women's participation in the labor force, Anita Nyberg suggests that it is the other way around: that development of maternity leave policies was a response to women's participation in the labor force.<ref>Nyberg, Anita. (2004). Parental Leave, Public Childcare and the Dual Earner/ Dual Carer-Model in Sweden.</ref>

Economist Christopher Ruhm argues that men's involvement in childcare at the same level as women is essential for eliminating differences in gender roles. Thus, an increase in the use of parental leave by women (and lack thereof by men) will have a negative impact on gender equality. Inversely, an increase in the use of leave by men will have a positive impact.<ref name=":4"/> Transferable leave policies appear to be fair and equal in theory, since they do not specifically allocate leave focused on childcare to women and even allow the family to choose. In practice, however, it leads to the majority of available parental leave being used by women.<ref name="Ruhm, Christopher 1998">{{cite journal | last1 = Ruhm | first1 = Christopher | s2cid = 51297709 | year = 1998 | title = The Economic Consequences of Parental Leave Mandates: Lessons from Europe | url = http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/C_Ruhm_Economic_1998.pdf| journal = The Quarterly Journal of Economics | volume = 113 | issue = 1| pages = 285–317 | doi=10.1162/003355398555586}}</ref> The Norwegian Association for Women's Rights, summarizing different studies, states that there is only limited evidence to support a relationship between the father's quota and gender equality; the few relevant studies point in different directions;<ref name="norway1">{{cite web |url=http://kvinnesak.no/2013/08/fedrekvoten-og-likestilling/ |title=Fedrekvoten har dårlig dokumentert effekt på likestilling |date=14 August 2013 |publisher=Norwegian Association for Women's Rights |language=no }}</ref> the association's former president, psychologist and former Chairman of UNICEF Torild Skard, argues that psychological research does not support the assertion that mothers can be replaced by fathers in the first year.<ref name="norway2">{{cite news |url=http://kvinnesak.no/2016/04/sjansespill-med-sarbare-babyer/ |title=Sjansespill med sårbare babyer |newspaper=Norsk Kvinnesaksforening |date=21 April 2016 |publisher=Norwegian Association for Women's Rights |language=no }}</ref> A Norwegian study from 2018 found that an extension of the father's quota had no effect on gender equality.<ref name="nrk">{{cite news |date=15 November 2018|title=Ny rapport: – Lengre pappaperm har ikke økt likestilling
 |url= https://www.nrk.no/norge/ny-rapport-viser-at-lengre-pappaperm-ikke-oker-likestilling-1.14293953|publisher=NRK }}</ref><ref name="isf">{{cite book |last1=Østbakken |first1=Kjersti Misje |last2=Halrynjo|first2=Sigtona|last3=Kitterød|first3=Ragni Hege|year=2018 |title=Foreldrepermisjon og likestilling: Foreldrepengeordningens betydning for likestilling i arbeidslivet og hjemme |url=https://samfunnsforskning.brage.unit.no/samfunnsforskning-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/2572935/Foreldrepermisjon%2bog%2blikestilling.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |publisher=[[Organization:Norwegian Institute for Social Research|Norwegian Institute for Social Research]] }}</ref>

Through examination of leave policies in twenty-one European countries by describing the existing policy schemes' duration, payment, and transferability, Carmen Castro-Garcia created the Parental Leave Equality Index (PLEI), which can predict the participation of each parent in raising their children based on their gender and the existing policy regarding parental leave.<ref name=":4"/> His model shows that a policy that provides equal, nontransferable, and well-paid leave for each parent (which no country has at the moment) will best encourage men's and women's equal participation in childcare.<ref name=":4"/>

==== European Union ====
{{See|Directive 92/85/EEC|Directive (EU) 2019/1158}}
The [[Social:European Union|European Union]] recognizes the ability for countries to utilize varying parental leave policies to affect labor force participation, the [[Finance:Labour economics|labor market]], maternal health, the work–life balance of parents, and the physical and emotional development of children. And by affecting the work–life balance of parents, it may reduce the barriers to participation of both parents in parenting. More specifically, paternity and parental leave policies are key to encouraging fathers' involvement in parenting the child.<ref name=":5">van Belle, Janna, Paternity and parental leave policies across the European Union. European Commission, 2016. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR1666.html.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Erhel | first1 = Christine | last2 = Guergoat-Larivière | first2 = Mathilde | s2cid = 157187317 | year = 2013 | title = Labor Market Regimes, Family Policies, and Women's Behavior in the EU | journal = Feminist Economics | volume = 19 | issue = 4| pages = 76–109 | doi = 10.1080/13545701.2013.842649}}</ref>
[[File:Flag of Europe.svg|thumb|242x242px|European Union flag]]
In 2014, the European Parliament concluded that, by promoting the uptake of parental leave and paternity leave by fathers, governments can aim to facilitate a more gender-equal distribution of care work, support mothers' return to the labor market, equalize the circumstances in which women and men enter the labor market,<ref name=":11"/> and improve the work–life balance of families.<ref name=":11">European Parliament. 2014. 'A new strategy for gender equality post 2015.' European Parliament. As of 17 October 2018: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2014/509984/IPOL_STU(2014)509984_EN.pdf</ref>

Findings by the European Parliament in 2015 found that 18 of the EU-28 countries offer paternity leave, and that the EU-average length is 12.5 days, ranging from one day in Italy to 64 working days in Slovenia.<ref>European Parliament. 2015b. 'Maternity, paternity and parental leave: Data related to duration and compensation rates in the European Union.' European Parliament. As of 17 October 2018: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2015/509999/IPOL_STU(2015)509999_EN.pdf</ref> For 23 EU member states, on average only 10 percent of fathers take parental leave, ranging from 0.02 percent in Greece to 44 per cent in Sweden.<ref>European Parliament. 2015a. 'At a glance: Maternity and paternity leave in the EU.' European Parliament. As of 17 October 2018: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2014/545695/EPRS_ATA(2014)545695_REV1_EN. pdf</ref>

The gender difference in the employment rate is representative of the gender employment gap; filling this gap is an important objective in promoting gender equality and is a part of the Europe 2020 target of an employment rate of 75 per cent for both men and women.<ref>European Commission. 2010. 'EUROPE 2020.' European Commission. As of 17 October 2018: http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/index_en.htm.</ref> The uptake of leave by fathers can reduce the motherhood penalty by enabling mothers to return to the labor market, as illustrated by studies that have shown that the involvement of fathers in childcare has a positive effect on mothers' full-time employment.<ref>Norman, H., M. Elliot & C. Fagan. 2014. 'Which fathers are the most involved in taking care of their toddlers in the UK? An investigation of the predictors of paternal involvement.' Community, Work & Family 17 (2): 163– 180</ref>

Reduction of the [[Social:Gender pay gap|gender pay gap]] (GPG) is also an important goal for the EU. In 2014 the GPG in the EU-28 was 16.1 percent, which means that for every euro men got paid in the EU, women got paid 83.9 cents.<ref>Eurostat. 2016. 'Gender pay gap statistics.' European Commission. As of 18 October 2018: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Gender_pay_gap_statistics</ref> (The GPG exists equally after correction for occupation and education level.<ref name=":5"/>) A study done on the gender pension gap estimates the gap to be around 40 percent, which is more than twice the gender pay gap.<ref>Tinios, P., F. Bettio & G. Betti. 2015. 'Men, Women and Pensions.' European Commission.  http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/files/documents/150618_men_women_pensions_en.pdf</ref> Increased leave uptake by fathers can reduce the length of career interruptions for women, reduce part-time work by women and potentially reduce the GPG, all of which are leading causes of the gender pension gap.<ref>European Commission. 2014. 'Report on equality between women and men 2014.' European Commission.  http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/files/annual_reports/150304_annual_report_2014_web_en.pdf</ref><ref name="Ruhm, Christopher 1998"/>

==== Nordic countries ====
The advancement of gender equality has also been on the political agenda of [[Place:Nordic countries|Nordic countries]] for decades. Although all Nordic countries have extended the total leave period, their policies towards father's quota are different.

In Iceland, each parent receives paid leaves, and each parent can transfer a month to the other (therefore there are two transferable months between the parents).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://work.iceland.is/living/maternity-and-paternity-leave | title=Maternity and paternity leave in Iceland }}</ref> In Sweden, 90 days cannot be transferred from one parent to the other—i.e. each parent gets at least 90 days of parental leave, thus the quota applies equally to both parents and is not specifically fathers.<ref name="Sweden"/> In total, Sweden offers new parents 480 days of parental leave and these days can be used up until the child is 12 years old.<ref>{{cite web|last=Authorlink|date=15 September 2020|title=Forsakringskassen Parental Leave Sweden|url=https://www.forsakringskassan.se/privatpers/foralder/nar_barnet_ar_fott/!ut/p/z1/04_Sj9CPykssy0xPLMnMz0vMAfIjo8ziTTxcnA3dnQ28_U2DXQwczTwDDcOCXY1CnU31w8EKDHAARwP9KEL6o_ApcXUyQldg4W5sauAYGGBobOJv5OUVbABVgMcNwal5-gW5EQaZAemKACsOmAk!/?1dmy&urile=wcm%3apath%3a%2Fcontentse_responsive%2Fprivatpers%2Fforalder%2Fnar_barnet_ar_fott%2Fforaldrapenning|website=Forsakringskassen}}</ref> The only Nordic country that does not provide fathers with a quota is {{wipe|Denmark}}, where women have the right to four weeks parent leave before giving birth and 14 weeks leave after giving birth. Thereafter, 32 weeks of parent leave are voluntarily divided between the man and the woman, making eight months leave entirely up to the family to decide.<ref>{{cite web |title=Denmark – Maternity benefit |url=https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1107&langId=en&intPageId=4487 |website=Employment, Social Affairs & Inclusion |publisher=European Commission |access-date=1 June 2020}}</ref> However, the dual earner/dual care model seems to be the direction of all the Nordic countries are moving in the construction of their parental leave systems.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Eydal|first1=G|last2=Gíslason|first2=I|last3=Rostgaard|first3=T|last4=Brandth|first4=B|last5=Duvander|first5=A|last6=Lammi-Taskula|first6=J|s2cid=153869177|year=2015|title=Trends in parental leave in the Nordic countries: Has the forward march of gender equality halted?|journal=Community, Work & Family|volume=18|issue=2|pages=167–181|doi=10.1080/13668803.2014.1002754}}</ref>

A study done in Norway found that when parental leave is granted for both parents, there is still gender inequality observed in the form of mothers being more likely to have part-time jobs compared to their partners.<ref name=":12"/> Since then, the government has provided child care support for parents who want them in order to encourage mothers to return to full-time jobs earlier, and it is effective to a certain extent.<ref name=":12">{{cite journal | last1 = Rønsen | first1 = Marit | last2 = Hege Kitterød | first2 = Ragni | s2cid = 154808826 | year = 2015 | title = Gender-Equalizing Family Policies and Mothers' Entry into Paid Work: Recent Evidence From Norway | journal = Feminist Economics | volume = 21 | issue = 1| pages = 59–89 | doi = 10.1080/13545701.2014.927584 }}</ref>

==== Germany ====
[[File:Paid parental leave picnic (7174336376).jpg|thumb|upright|Mother spending time with her child]]
In {{wipe|Germany}}, original laws tackling gender inequality with respect to parenting date back to 1986 in both Eastern and Western Germany, where one parent could take up to two years of leave after the birth of the child with a maximum allowance.<ref name=":13">{{cite web|url=https://www.perfar.eu/policy/family-children/germany|title=Family Policies: Germany (2014)|last=Radenacker|first=Anke|website=perfar.org|access-date=11 November 2018}}</ref> According to a study done in 2006, 97% of the people who took the leave were mothers.<ref name=":9">VOGL, S., & KRELL, C. (2012). PARENTAL LEAVE AND PARENTING BENEFITS: Potential Effects on Father Participation in Germany. ''International Journal of Sociology of the Family,'' ''38''(1), 19–38. Retrieved from {{JSTOR|43488388}}</ref>

In 2007, declining [[Birth rate|birth rate]]s and demographic change led to a new law, the "Parenting Benefits and Parental Leave Law" (Bundeselterngeld- und Elternzeit-Gesetz).<ref name=":13"/><ref name=":9"/> This change in family policy had mainly two aims: to reduce parents' financial loss in the first year after childbirth, and to encourage fathers to actively participate in childcare by taking parental leave.<ref name=":13"/><ref name=":9"/>

With this shift in paradigm, a better work–life balance and less support for the male breadwinner model was targeted. This was part of a "sustainable family policy" promoted by German unification and European integration with the underlying objective to raise birth rates by providing financial incentive.<ref>Leitner, S., Ostner, I. & Schmitt, C. (2008). Family Policies in Germany. In Ostner & Schmitt (Eds), Family Policies in the Context of Family Change, (pp. 175–202). The Nordic Countries in Comparative Perspective. Wiesbaden: VS-Verlag</ref>

The law's impact was mainly perceived positively with men reporting high motivation to take leave. So far this has not been reflected in official statistics, but Susanne Vogl concludes that if there is a general willingness of men to participate in parental leave the new Parenting Benefits regulations will help facilitate the actual decision to take a leave.<ref name=":9"/>

==== United States ====
{{See|Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993|Parental leave in the United States}}
Even though, according to a survey conducted by WorldatWork and Mercer in 2017, 93% of Americans agree that mothers should receive paid parental leave and 85% agree that fathers should receive paid parental leave, as of October 2018 the {{wipe|United States}} does not have nationwide laws that guarantee paid parental leave to its workforce;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldatwork.org/docs/research-and-surveys/Survey-Report-Survey-of-Paid-Parental-Leave-in-the-US.pdf|title=Survey of Paid Parental Leave in the United States|last=WorldatWork}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://humanevents.com/2019/05/04/bring-back-the-american-family/ |title=Bring Back the American Family|date = 4 May 2019}}</ref> however, certain states have passed laws providing paid workers with such rights. As of April 2022, ten states ({{wipe|California}},<ref>(A.B. 908, 2015–2016 Leg., Reg. Sess. (Cal. 2016) (enacted)</ref><ref>(S.B. 63, 2017–2018 Leg., Reg. Sess. (Cal. 2017) (enacted))</ref> New Jersey,<ref>(N.J. Stat. Ann. § 43:21–38)</ref> Rhode Island,<ref>(R.I. Gen. Laws § 28-41-35(h))</ref> New York,<ref>(S. 6406C, Part SS, 239th Leg., Reg. Sess. (N.Y. 2016) (enacted))</ref> {{wipe|Washington (state)}},<ref>(S.B. 5975, 65th Leg., 3rd Special Sess. (Wash. 2017) (enacted))</ref> {{wipe|Massachusetts}},<ref>(H. 4640 § 29, 190th Gen. Court, Reg. Sess. (Mass. 2018) (enacted))</ref> Connecticut,<ref>(Public Act. No. 19-25, 2019 Gen. Assembly, Reg. Sess. (Ct. 2019)</ref> Oregon,<ref>H.B. 2005B, 80th Leg. Assembly, Reg. Sess. (Ore. 2019)</ref> Colorado,<ref>(CO Rev. Stat. § 8-13.3-501-524 (Colo. 2020))</ref> and Maryland<ref>(S.B. 275, 444th Gen. Assembly, Reg. Sess. (Md. 2022))</ref>) and the District of Columbia<ref>(D.C. Law 21-264 (D.C. 2016))</ref> have enacted laws that grant parental leave as part of state paid family and medical leave insurance laws, with 4 being effective currently. In states without such laws, a proportion of companies do provide paid parental leave.<ref name=":6"/><ref name="wsj-webber"/>

According to Eileen Appelbaum, the lack of parental leave policies results in many low-income families struggling to support themselves financially if both parents are off work. As a result, many mothers leave work to take care of their children while the father remains at work to financially support the family.<ref>Kleman, Jacob, Kelly Daley, and Alyssa Pozniak. 2013. Family and Medical Leave in 2012: Technical Report, Cambridge: Abt Associates. < http://www.dol.gov/asp/evaluation/fmla/FMLA-2012-Technical-Report.pdf</ref><ref>Appelbaum, Eileen and Ruth Milkman. 2011. Leaves That Pay: Employer and Worker Experiences with Paid Family Leave in California. Washington DC: Center for Economic and Policy Research.</ref>

The group of mothers that uses maternity leave most often in the United States are White, non-Hispanic women and the usage of paid maternity leave is drastically lower among [[Biography:Black people|Black]] and Hispanic mothers.<ref name=":02">{{cite journal|last=Hawkins|first=Devan|date=5 October 2020|title=Disparities in the usage of maternity leave according to occupation, race/ethnicity, and education|journal=American Journal of Industrial Medicine|volume=63|issue=12|pages=1134–1144|doi=10.1002/ajim.23188|pmid=33020984|s2cid=222158133}}</ref> The groups of women that have the most access and opportunity to use maternity leave are often reported as having a higher level of income and full-time employment.<ref name=":02" /> Statistically, Black women are half as likely to take leave as compared to White women.<ref name=":17">{{cite journal|last1=Gerstel|first1=Naomi|last2=McGonagle|first2=Katherine|date=4 November 1999|title=Job Leaves and the Limits of the Family and Medical Leave Act: The Effects of Gender, Race, and Family|journal=Work and Occupations|volume=26|pages=510–534|doi=10.1177/0730888499026004006|hdl=2027.42/69106|s2cid=145464821|via=SAGE Premier 2014|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Black people are substantially less likely to take maternity or parental leave, which is due to structural factors including racial and ethnic discrimination in the workforce.<ref name=":02" /> Black women have less access to resources that allow them to take leave or provide care for family members, and Hispanic women are faced with the same issues.<ref name=":17" /> These disadvantages lead to lower socioeconomic statuses of Black and Hispanic people in the United States, which also contribute to a lack of opportunity for paid maternity leave and a lack of the financial resources needed to be able to afford taking unpaid or partially paid parental leave.<ref name=":02" /> Black and Hispanic workers are less likely to work in professional-class jobs, and therefore are less likely to have access to benefits like paid leave that come with such jobs.<ref name=":27">{{Cite journal|last1=Goodman|first1=Julia M.|last2=Williams|first2=Connor|last3=Dow|first3=William H.|date=August 31, 2021|title=Racial/Ethnic Inequities in Paid Parental Leave Access|journal=Health Equity|volume=5|issue=1|pages=738–49|doi=10.1089/heq.2021.0001|pmid=34909544|pmc=8665807|via=Mary Ann Liebert Online}}</ref> Black parents are frequently employed in the public sector, which also may exclude them from paid family leave opportunities.<ref name=":27" /> When a lack of access to paid or unpaid maternity or parental leave is reported, Black and Hispanic women are more likely to have higher risks of maternal and child health problems.<ref name=":02" /> Non-Hispanic Black women are more likely to die from complications of pregnancy than Non-Hispanic White women in the United States.<ref name=":27" />

==== Australia ====
The Australian government provides paid parental leave for both parents, but more for the mother compared to the father.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fairwork.gov.au/leave/maternity-and-parental-leave|title=Maternity and Parental Leave|website=Fair Work|access-date=19 October 2018}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{cite journal | last1 = Bittman | first1 = Michael | year = 1999 | title = Parenthood Without Penalty: Time Use And Public Policy in Australia And Finland | journal = Feminist Economics | volume = 5 | issue = 3| pages = 27–42 | doi = 10.1080/135457099337798 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fairwork.gov.au/leave/maternity-and-parental-leave/paid-parental-leave|title=Paid Parental Leave|website=Fair Work}}</ref> Michael Bittman stated that the reason they provide parental leave is unique in that they view children as "[[Finance:Public good (economics)|public good]]s" and, therefore, the state is responsible to provide and support the child.<ref name=":7"/> But like most places around the world, studies done in Australia show that the inequality still persists within the family, and that women spend more time doing unpaid work (like parenting) compared to men.<ref>Bryson, Lois, Michael Bittman and Susan Donath. 1994. "Men's and Women's Welfare States: Tendencies to Convergence in Theory and Practice?" in Diane Sainsbury (ed.) Engendering Welfare States: Combining Insights of Feminist and Mainstream Research, pp. 118–31. London: Sage</ref>

==== China ====
According to a study done by Nan Jia, during the Maoist era, women's full participation in the labor force played a key role in the Chinese government's efforts to advance women's position in society. To facilitate women's labor force participation, the Chinese government initiated a series of measures to mitigate the work–family conflict that women face during pregnancy and childbirth.<ref name=":8"/> These measures included an entitlement to 56 days of paid maternity leave.<ref name=":8">{{cite journal | last1 = Nan Jia | first1 = Xiao-yuan Dong | last2 = Yue-ping | first2 = Song | year = 2018 | title = Paid Maternity Leave and Breastfeeding in Urban China | journal = Feminist Economics | volume = 24 | issue = 2| pages = 31–53 | doi = 10.1080/13545701.2017.1380309 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

In the post-reform era, a series of new regulations have been introduced to protect women's employment and reproductive rights in the new market economy. The [[Social:Labour law|Labor Law]] adopted in 1995 ensured that women and men have equal employment rights and that employers will not lay off women employees or lower their wages for reasons of marriage, pregnancy, maternity leave, or breastfeeding.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npc.gov.cn/englishnpc/Law/2007-12/12/content_1383754.htm|title=laws|website=npc.gov.cn|access-date=13 November 2018}}</ref> The Labor Contract Law enacted in 2008 introduced the provision that prohibits employers from unilaterally terminating labor contracts with women employees who are pregnant, give birth, and care for a baby postpartum. Thus, under the Labor Law and Labor Contract Law, women employees are entitled to job-protected maternity leave.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npc.gov.cn/englishnpc/Law/2009-02/20/content_1471106.htm|title=laws|website=npc.gov.cn|access-date=13 November 2018}}</ref>

The post-reform era saw further improvements in maternity benefits. The length of paid maternity leave was extended from fifty-six days prior to reform, to ninety days in 1988, and to 98 days in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/china-maternity-leave-further-extended-by-provinces/|title=China: Maternity Leave Further Extended by Provinces|last=Zhang|first=Laney|date=3 May 2016|website=Library of Congress|access-date=11 November 2018}}</ref> Most recently in 2016, paid maternity leave was extended to a minimum of 128 days after the long-standing one-child policy was replaced with a policy that encourages each couple to have two children. This latest extension of paid leave aims to increase fertility rates and slow the population aging process.<ref name=":8"/>

=== On relationships ===
A 2020 study in the ''Economic Journal'' found that reforms in Iceland that incentivized fathers to take parental leave reduced the likelihood of parents separating. The strongest impact was on relationships where the mother was more educated than or equally educated as the father.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Olafsson|first1=Arna|last2=Steingrimsdottir|first2=Herdis|title=How Does Daddy at Home Affect Marital Stability?|journal=The Economic Journal|year=2020|volume=130|issue=629|pages=1471–1500|doi=10.1093/ej/ueaa009}}</ref>

== Private parental leave ==

Some businesses adopt policies that are favorable to workers and [[Philosophy:Public opinion|public opinion]]. In their study of maternity leave policies in the United States, Kelly and Dobbin found that public policy surrounding [[Medicine:Pregnancy|pregnancy]] as a temporary disability (for instance, California's [[Social:Pregnancy discrimination#Legislation|Family Temporary Disability Insurance]] program) gave rise to business practices that included maternity leave as a benefit.<ref name=":6">{{cite journal | last1 = Kelly | first1 = E. | last2 = Dobbin | first2 = F. | year = 1999 | title = Civil Rights Law at Work: Sex Discrimination and the Rise of Maternity Leave Policies | url = http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:3202909| journal = The American Journal of Sociology | volume = 105 | issue = 2| pages = 455–492 | doi=10.1086/210317| s2cid = 30745479 }}</ref>

Companies are starting to offer paid parental leave as a benefit to some American workers, seeing a profitable aspect of doing so, including: reduced [[Social:Turnover (employment)|turnover]] costs, increased [[Finance:Productivity#Drivers of productivity growth|productivity]] from workers, and increased rates of [[Social:Employee retention|retention]] among women after childbirth. Some see the increase in paid parental leave as indicative of companies reaching out to women, as more women are working and returning to work after having children, and by doing so these companies generate positive publicity as employers with family-friendly workplaces.<ref name="Miller">Miller, K., Helmuth, A.S. et al. 2009. "[http://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/the-need-for-paid-parental-leave-for-federal-employees-adapting-to-a-changing-workforce-1 The Need for Paid Parental Leave Policy: Adapting to a Changing Workforce] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150516022955/http://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/the-need-for-paid-parental-leave-for-federal-employees-adapting-to-a-changing-workforce-1 |date=16 May 2015 }}." Institute for Women's Policy Research. Washington, D.C.</ref> ''Working Mother'' magazine publishes a list of the 100 Best Companies for working mothers each year, a list which is noted not only by the readership of the magazine, but also by corporate America and increasingly by researchers and policy institutes as well.<ref name="Miller"/> The [[Organization:Institute for Women's Policy Research|Institute for Women's Policy Research]] issued a report in 2009 encouraging Congress to give federal workers four weeks of paid parental leave.<ref name="Miller"/> The report cited statistics from the ''Working Mother'' 100 Best Company list, using private sector corporations as examples of substantial increase in the retention of new mothers after instituting a longer maternity leave policy. The report also noted that it would take newer workers four years to accrue enough paid leave (sick leave and annual leave) to equal the 12 weeks of unpaid parental leave provided under the FMLA, and that private sector companies that offer paid parental leave have a significant advantage over the federal government in the recruitment and retention of younger workers who may wish to have children.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}}

As of February 2018, multinational companies such as [[Company:Deloitte|Deloitte]], TIAA and [[Company:Cisco Systems|Cisco]] were providing parental leave regardless of the parent's gender.<ref name=wsj-webber>{{cite news |last=Webber |first=Lauren |date=21 February 2018 |title=Some Companies Move to Gender-Blind Leave for New Parents |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/modern-family-some-companies-move-to-gender-blind-leave-for-new-parents-1519225200 | work={{wipe|The Wall Street Journal}} |location=The New York Times, New York City, United States |access-date=22 September 2018}}</ref>

== By continent ==
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women introduces "maternity leave with pay or with comparable social benefits without loss of former employment, seniority or social allowances".<ref>Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, Article 11, 2 (b)</ref> The Maternity Protection Convention C 183 adopted in 2000 by International Labour Organization requires 14 weeks of maternity leave as minimum condition.<ref>Maternity Protection Convention C 183, Article 4</ref>

National laws vary widely according to the politics of each jurisdiction. As of 2012, only two countries do not mandate paid time off for new parents: Papua New Guinea and the {{wipe|United States}}.<ref>Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. {{ISBN|978-92-2-128630-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---travail/documents/publication/wcms_235155.pdf|title=Working Conditions Laws Report 2012: A global review|publisher=International Labor Organization|year=2013|isbn=978-92-2-127516-9}}</ref>

Unless otherwise specified, the information in the tables below is gathered from the most recent International Labour Organization reports. Maternity leave refers to the legal protection given to the mother immediately after she gives birth (but may also include a period before the birth), paternity leave to legal protection given to the father immediately after the mother gives birth, and parental leave to protected time for childcare (usually for either parent) either after the maternity/paternity leave or immediately after birth (for example when the parent is not eligible for paternal leave or where the time is calculated until the child is a specific age—therefore excluding parental leave—usually such jurisdictions protect the job until the child reaches a specific age).<ref>e.g. in [[Place:Czech Republic|Czech Republic]]: "Section 196 Parental Leave reads: "In order to extend the care being given to a child, the employer shall grant a female or male employee parental leave if so requested (applied for). Parental leave is granted to the mother of a child upon termination of her maternity leave and to the father of a child from the day when the child is born and it is granted within the scope as requested (as applied for), but '''no longer than until the day when the child reaches the age of three years'''." [http://www.mpsv.cz/files/clanky/3221/labour_code.pdf#]</ref> Others allow the parental leave to be transferred into part-time work time. Parental leave is generally available to either parent, except where specified. Leave marked "Unpaid" indicates the job is protected for the duration of the leave. Different countries have different rules regarding eligibility for leave and how long a parent has to have worked at their place of employment prior to giving birth before they are eligible for paid leave. In the [[Social:European Union|European Union]], the policies vary significantly by country—with regard to length, to payment, and to how parental leave relates to prior maternity leave—but the EU members must abide by the minimum standards of the Pregnant Workers Directive and Parental Leave Directive.<ref name="auto3"/>

=== Africa ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! rowspan=2 | Country
! colspan=2 | Maternity leave
! colspan=2 | Paternity leave
! colspan=2 | Parental{{efn|Either parent}} leave
! rowspan=2 | Source of payment
|-
! Length (weeks)
! Pay
! Length (weeks)
! Pay
! Length (weeks)
! Pay
|-
| Algeria||14<ref name="Addati p 133">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 133</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||<1<ref name="Addati p 150">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 150</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| Angola||13<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| Benin||14<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (maternity: 50% social insurance; 50% employer. Paternity: 100% employer)
|-
| Botswana||12<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|50}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| Burkina Faso||14<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{nts|100}}%||52<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| Burundi||12<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2+<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{nts|50}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (maternity: 50% social insurance; 50% employer. Paternity: 100% employer)
|-
| Cameroon||14<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| Cape Verde||9<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|90}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| Central African Republic||14<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|50}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| Chad||14<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{nts|100}}%||52<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| Comoros||14<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| Congo||15<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (maternity: 50% social insurance; 50% employer. Paternity: 100% employer)
|-
| Côte d'Ivoire||14<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 150"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| Democratic Republic of the Congo||14<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|67}}%||<1<ref name="Addati p 151">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 151</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| Djibouti||14<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|100}}%||<1<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (maternity: 50% social insurance; 50% employer. Paternity: 100% employer)
|-
| [[Place:Egypt|Egypt]]||13<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||104 (only mothers)<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||Mixed (75% social security; 25% employer liability)
|-
| Equatorial Guinea||12<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|75}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| Eritrea||9<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||<!--unknown-->||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| Ethiopia||17<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mywage.org/ethiopia/labour-law/maternity |title=Maternity Leave, Pay, Benefits, Rights at work in Ethiopia - Mywage.org/Ethiopia |publisher=Mywage.org |date=2021-03-19 |accessdate=2022-08-06}}</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||1<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| Gabon||14<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| Gambia||12<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| Ghana||12<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| Guinea||14<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||38 (only mothers)<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||Mixed (50% social insurance; 50% employer)
|-
| Guinea-Bissau||9<ref name="Addati p 133"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (social security flat rate, employer pays the difference to equal wage)
|-
| Kenya||13<ref name="Addati p 134">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 134</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| Lesotho||12<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| [[Place:Libya|Libya]]||14<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||50% (100% for self-employed women)||<1<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer (social security for self-employed)
|-
| {{wipe|Madagascar}}||14<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (maternity: 50% social insurance; 50% employer. Paternity: 100% employer)
|-
| Malawi||8<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| Mali||14<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|100}}%||<1<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 151"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| Mauritania||14<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 152">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 152</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| [[Earth:Mauritius|Mauritius]]||12<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|100}}%||1<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| Morocco||14<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|100}}%||<1<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{nts|100}}%||52 (only mothers)<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||Social security
|-
| Mozambique||9<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|100}}%||<1<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| Namibia||12<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|100}}%, with a maximum||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| Niger||14<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (50% social insurance; 50% employer)
|-
| Nigeria||12<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|50}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| [[Biology:Rwanda|Rwanda]]||12<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{ntsh|60}}100% for 6 weeks; 20% remainder||<1<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
|São Tomé and Príncipe||9<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| Senegal||14<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| Seychelles||14<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||Flat rate for 12 weeks; unpaid remainder||<1<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| Sierra Leone||12<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|100}}%||<!--unknown-->|| ||<!--unknown-->|| ||Employer liability
|-
| Somalia||14<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|50}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| {{wipe|South Africa}}||17<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|60}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 152"/><ref name="News24">{{cite web|url= http://www.parent24.com/Pregnant/Getting_Ready/yes-the-new-paternity-leave-benefits-begin-today-20191101 |title=Yes! New paternity leave benefits begin today|last=Johannes|first=Lesley-Anne|website=News24}}</ref>||{{nts|66}}%||10 or 2{{efn|In the case of adoption and surrogacy: 10 weeks for one parent (termed parental adoption or commissioning parental leave) and 10 days for the other parent (parental leave)}}<ref name="News24"/>||{{nts|66}}%||Social security
|-
| Sudan||8<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
|Eswatini||12<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{ntsh|16.7}}100% for 2 weeks; unpaid remainder||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| Tanzania||12<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|100}}%||<1<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 152"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| Togo||14<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 153">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 153</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 153"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (maternity: 50% social insurance; 50% employer. Paternity: 100% employer)
|-
| Tunisia||4<ref name="Addati p 134"/>||{{nts|66.70}}%||<1<ref name="Addati p 153"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 153"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| Uganda||10<ref name="Addati p 135">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 135</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||<1<ref name="Addati p 153"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 153"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| Zambia||14<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mywage.org/zambia/decent-work/maternity-and-work |title=Maternity Leave in Zambia - Maternity Pay, Rights, Laws at Work - Mywage.org/Zambia |publisher=Mywage.org |date= |accessdate=2022-08-06}}</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||5 days<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unicef.cn/en/csr/zambia|title = Zambia}}</ref>||||0<ref name="Addati p 153"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| Zimbabwe||14<ref name="Addati p 154">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 154</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 153"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 153"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|}
{{noteslist}}

=== Americas ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | Country
! colspan=2 | Maternity leave
! colspan=2 | Paternity leave
! colspan=2 | Parental{{efn|Either parent}} leave
! rowspan=2 | Source of payment
|-
! Length (weeks)
! Pay
! Length (weeks)
! Pay
! Length (weeks)
! Pay
|-
| colspan=2 | Antigua and Barbuda||13<ref name="Addati p 138">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 138</ref>||{{ntsh|78.5}}100% for 6 weeks; 60% for 7 weeks||0<ref name="Addati p 161">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 161</ref>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (60% social security all 13 weeks plus 40% from employer for first 6 weeks)
|-
| colspan=2 | {{wipe|Argentina}}||13<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{nts|100}}%||<1<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| colspan=2 | Bahamas||13<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{ntsh|97.4}}100% for 12 weeks; 66.7% for 1 week||<1<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (2/3 social security for 13 weeks; 1/3 employer for 12 weeks)
|-
| colspan=2 | Barbados||12<ref name="Addati p 139">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 139</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| colspan=2 | Belize||14<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| colspan=2 | Bolivia||13<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|95}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| colspan=2 | {{wipe|Brazil}}||17<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|100}}%||<1 to 4<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{nts|100}}%||7–30 days<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| colspan=2 | British Virgin Islands||13<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|67}}%||||||||||Social security
|-
35<ref name="canada_employment_insurance_maternity_and_parental_benefits"/>
|Standard option:
{{nts|55}}% (up to max. of $29,205 p.a.)<ref name="canada_employment_insurance_maternity_and_parental_benefits"/>
| rowspan="2" |Social security
|-
|Extended option:
61<ref name="canada_employment_insurance_maternity_and_parental_benefits"/>
|Extended option:
33% (up to max. of $17,523 p.a.)<ref name="canada_employment_insurance_maternity_and_parental_benefits"/>
|-
| rowspan="2" | Quebec, {{wipe|Canada}}
|{{abbr|Opt.|Option}}{{nbsp}}1
| 18<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=http://www.rqap.gouv.qc.ca/travailleur_salarie/choix.asp|title=Choix du régime de prestations >Travailleur salarié > RQAP|website=rqap.gouv.qc.ca|language=fr|access-date=21 September 2017}}</ref>
| 70% (up to maximum $975 per week)<ref name=":3"/>
| 5<ref name=":3"/>
| 70% (up to maximum $975 per week)<ref name=":3"/>
| 32<ref name=":3"/>
| 7 weeks at 70% (up to maximum $975 per week) + 25 weeks at 55% (up to maximum $767 per week)<ref name=":3"/>
| rowspan="2" | Social security
|-
| {{abbr|Opt.|Option}}{{nbsp}}2
| 15
| 75% (up to maximum $1046 per week)
| 3
| 75% (up to maximum $1046 per week)
| 32
| 75% (up to maximum $1024 per week)
|-
| colspan=2 | {{wipe|Chile}}||24<ref name="Nuevo Posnatal">{{cite web|title=Chile Atiende – Nuevo Posnatal|url=http://www.chileatiende.cl/fichas/ver/8647|access-date=19 August 2015|date=9 July 2014}}</ref>||{{nts|100}}%, with a maximum||1<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{nts|100}}%||12 (6 only for mothers)<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{nts|100}}%, with a maximum||Social security
|-
| colspan=2 | Colombia||14<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|100}}%||1+<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| colspan=2 | Costa Rica||17<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (50% social security, 50% employer)
|-
| colspan=2 | Cuba||18<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||39<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{nts|60}}%||Social security
|-
| colspan=2 | [[Earth:Dominica|Dominica]]||12<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|60}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| colspan=2 | Dominican Republic||12<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|100}}%||<1<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (maternity: 50% social security, 50% employer; paternity: employer liability)
|-
| colspan=2 | Ecuador||12<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (maternity: 75% social security, 25% employer; paternity: employer liability)
|-
| colspan=2 | El Salvador||12<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|75}}%||<1<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 161"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| colspan=2 | Grenada||13<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{ntsh|86.5}}100% for 8 weeks; 65% for remainder||0<ref name="Addati p 162">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 162</ref>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (65% social security all 13 weeks plus 35% from employer for first 8 weeks)
|-
| colspan=2 | Guatemala||12<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|100}}%||<1<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (maternity: 2/3 social security, 1/3 employer; paternity: employer)
|-
| colspan=2 | Guyana||13<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|70}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| colspan=2 | Haiti||12<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{ntsh|50}}100% for 6 weeks; unpaid remainder||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| colspan=2 | Honduras||12<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{ntsh|83.3}}100% for 10 weeks; unpaid remainder||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (2/3 social security, 1/3 employer)
|-
| colspan=2 | Jamaica||12<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{ntsh|66.7}}100% for 8 weeks; unpaid remainder||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| colspan=2 | Mexico||12<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|100}}%||1<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| colspan=2 | Nicaragua||12<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (60% social security, 40% employer)
|-
| colspan=2 | Panama||14<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| colspan=2 | Paraguay||12<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||50% for 9 weeks; unpaid remainder||<1<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| colspan=2 | Peru||13<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|100}}%||<1<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| colspan=2 | Puerto Rico||8<ref name="Addati p 139"/>||{{nts|100}}%||<1<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||Employer liability
|-
| colspan=2 | Saint Kitts and Nevis||13<ref name="Addati p 140">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 140</ref>||{{nts|65}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| colspan=2 | Saint Lucia||13<ref name="Addati p 140"/>||{{nts|65}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| colspan=2 | Saint Vincent and the Grenadines||13<ref name="Addati p 140"/>||{{nts|65}}%||||||||||Social security
|-
| colspan=2 | Trinidad and Tobago||14<ref>{{cite web | title=Trinidad and Tobago. Maternity Protection Act (Cap. 45:57)
 | website=ilo.org| date=11 May 2023 | url=https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=50129&p_country=TTO&p_count=205&p_classification=16&p_classcount=2#:~:text=Provides%20for%2013%20weeks%20of,not%20less%20than%2012%20months. | access-date=30 July 2023}}</ref>||100% for first month, 50% for subsequent months<ref>[http://rgd.legalaffairs.gov.tt/laws2/alphabetical_list/lawspdfs/45.57.pdf Section 9: "(2) During the period of maternity leave, an employee is entitled to receive pay from her employer to an amount equivalent to one month's leave with full pay and two months' leave with half pay"]</ref>||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||||||Mixed (2/3 social security, 1/3 employer)
|-
| colspan=2 | Uruguay||14<ref name="Addati p 140"/>||{{nts|100}}%||<2<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{nts|100}}%||||||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| colspan=2 | {{wipe|United States}} (federal){{efn|The United States of America has no national law guaranteeing paid parental leave. Since 2002, [[Social:Paid Family Leave (California)|California law]] instituted state-wide paid parental leave. As of April 2022, similar laws mandating paid parental leave also exist in Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, Washington, and the District of Columbia; similar laws have been passed, but programs are not yet active in Colorado, Maryland, and Oregon.}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bipartisanpolicy.org/explainer/state-paid-family-leave-laws-across-the-u-s/|title=State Paid Family Leave Laws Across the U.S. &#124; Bipartisan Policy Center|website=bipartisanpolicy.org}}</ref>||0<ref name="Addati p 137"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 158"/>||{{n/a}}||12 each{{efn|The [[Medicine:Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993|Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993]] mandates 12 weeks of unpaid parental leave for most public employees and certain eligible employees of private employers with more than 50 employees within a 75 mile radius.}}<ref name="Addati p 158"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||{{n/a}}
|-
| colspan=2 | {{wipe|United States}} (state-level){{efn|Paid Family Leave is mandatory in eleven states plus the District of Columbia}}<ref name="auto4">{{cite web | url=https://bipartisanpolicy.org/explainer/state-paid-family-leave-laws-across-the-u-s/ | title=State Paid Family Leave Laws Across the U.S. &#124; Bipartisan Policy Center }}</ref>||6 to 12 weeks (6 weeks in Rhode Island, 8 weeks in California and 12 weeks in Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Washington and the District of Columbia)||Varies by state||6 to 12 weeks (6 weeks in Rhode Island, 8 weeks in California and 12 weeks in Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Washington and the District of Columbia)||Varies by state||{{n/a}}||{{n/a}}||Mixed (Social or private insurance)<ref name="auto4"/>
|-
| colspan=2 | Venezuela||26<ref name="Addati p 140"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 162"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|}
{{noteslist}}

=== Asia ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Country
! Paid maternity leave
! Paid paternity leave
! Unpaid maternity leave
! Unpaid paternity leave
! Paid parental{{efn|Either parent}} leave
! Restrictions
|-
| Afghanistan
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| Bahrain
| 60 days 100%

|
|There is unpaid maternity leave for taking care of a child not exceeding six years of age, of maximum six month each time and for three times throughout the period of the mother's service.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lmra.bh/portal/en/page/show/259|title = Employment of women}}</ref>
|
|
|
|-
| Bangladesh
| 16 weeks (8 weeks before delivery and 8 weeks after delivery) 100%
|
| In case of third-plus-time mother, who has two or more babies alive already.
|
|
|
|-
| Cambodia
| 90 days 50%
| 10 days' special leave for family events
|
|
|
|
|-
| {{wipe|China}}
| 128 days 100%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Place:Hong Kong|Hong Kong]]
| 14 weeks (100% for 10 weeks, up to HK$80,000 for the rest)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://hongkongfp.com/2020/07/10/hong-kong-increases-maternity-leave-from-10-to-14-weeks/|title=Hong Kong increases maternity leave from 10 to 14 weeks|first=Jennifer|last=Creery|date=10 July 2020|website=Hong Kong Free Press HKFP}}</ref>
| 5 days 80%,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201901/11/P2019011100352.htm |title = Five-day statutory paternity leave to take effect on 18 January}}</ref> public servant 100%<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/world-51136749|title=日本環境大臣小泉進次郎休陪產假計劃引熱議|date=17 January 2020|publisher=BBC}}</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-
| {{wipe|India}}
| 26 weeks 100%.
| Up to 15 days' (3 working weeks) male leave 100%(only for Government Employees). For private sector, it is as per company policies
|
|
|
| Prohibits employers from allowing women to work within six weeks after giving birth.<ref>[http://vakilno1.com/bareacts/maternitybenact/s4.htm Maternity Benefits Act, 1961]. Section 4. ''VakilNo1''. 12 December 1961.</ref> A female employee is eligible only if she worked for the employer and contributed for at least 80 days during the 12-month period preceding the date of expected delivery.<ref name=dignifying>Lotiya, Palak. "[http://www.paycheck.in/main/articles-archives/paycheck-articles/maternity-benefits-2013-a-mode-of-dignifying-motherhood Maternity benefits – A mode of dignifying motherhood]". ''Paycheck.in''. Indian Institute of Management.</ref> In the case of a stillbirth, miscarriage or an abortion, six weeks of paid leave is required instead.<ref name=dignifying/> From the third child onwards, only 12 weeks of paid maternity leave is permitted.<ref>{{cite web|title=Parliament passes bill to extend maternity leave from 12 to 26 weeks|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/parliament-passes-bill-to-extend-maternity-leave-from-12-to-26-weeks/story-WvaaRJlkYO1ADkHt2qRHfI.html|website=Hindustan Times|access-date=9 March 2017|date=9 March 2017}}</ref>
|-
| Indonesia
| 3 months 100%
| Two days' paid when wife gives birth
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Religion:Iran|Iran]]
| 6 months 100%
| 2 weeks compulsory 100%
|
|
|
|
|-
| Iraq
| 62 days 100%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Place:Israel|Israel]]
| 15 weeks 100%, with an additional 12 weeks unpaid. The weeks from 6th to 15th can be taken by the father.<ref>{{cite news|title=Maternity Leave|url=https://www.kolzchut.org.il/en/Maternity_Leave|access-date=2022-01-02|newspaper=כל-זכות|language=en}}</ref>
| Can take the paid leave instead of the mother starting from the 6th week (up to 15 weeks)
| 1 year
|
|
|
|-
| {{wipe|Japan}}
| 14 weeks 60%
|
|
|
| 1 year<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ipmu.jp/en/page/dbbb4775-1008-4deb-8d7d-8766e5d8c9f8 |title = Having a baby in Japan {{!}} Kavli IPMU-カブリ数物連携宇宙研究機構}}</ref>
| When parents take turns, the total period may be extended 2 months (but no longer than 1 year for each parent).<ref>{{cite book | title = Introduction to the revised Child Care and Family Care Leave Law | url =http://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/policy/affairs/dl/05.pdf | publisher = Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare | location = Japan }}</ref><ref name="Fleckenstein">{{Cite journal | last1 = Fleckenstein | first1 = Timo | last2 = Lee | first2 = Soohyun Christine | s2cid = 157776706 | title = Does maternity leave pay off? Evidence from a recent reform in Australia | journal = Social Politics | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–28 | doi = 10.1093/sp/jxw008 | date =Spring 2017 | url = http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/108843/ }}</ref> Also high risk of refusal of leave request or demotion for taking leave.<ref>{{cite news| title = Canadian ex-brokerage manager loses lawsuit over Japanese paternity leave, plans to appeal | url =https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/04/04/national/crime-legal/canadian-paternity-leave-lawsuit/ | location = Japan }}</ref> 
|-
| Jordan
| 10 weeks 100%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| Korea, Republic of
| 90 days 100%
| 10 days
|
|
|Parents who have a child aged not more than 8 years or in the 2nd or lower grade of an elementary school are eligible for one year of child care leave paid by the Employment Insurance Fund at 40% of normal wage.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.replicon.com/regulation/south-korea/|title = South Korea}}</ref>
|
|-
| Korea, Democratic People's Republic of
| 11 weeks<ref>{{cite web | last = Har | first = Janie | title = Is paid maternity leave really the standard around the world? | url = http://www.politifact.com/oregon/statements/2013/may/18/family-forward-oregon/paid-maternity-leave-really-standard-around-world/ | website = politifact.com | publisher = politifact |year = 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Fleckenstein"/>
| 
|
| 
|
|
|-
| Kuwait
| 70 days 100%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| Lao People's Democratic Republic
| 3 months 70%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Place:Lebanon|Lebanon]]
| 10<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.aljoumhouria.com/pages/view/130032|title=Parliament extends maternity leave to 10 weeks|work=Al Joumhouria| date = April 2014}}</ref> weeks 100%
| 1 day 100%
|
|
|
|-
| Malaysia
| 98 days 100%<ref name="MY22">{{cite news |title=Amendments to Employment Act comes into force Jan 1 |url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2022/12/863117/amendments-employment-act-comes-force-jan-1 |access-date=11 January 2023 |work=New Straits Times |date=21 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106041217/https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2022/12/863117/amendments-employment-act-comes-force-jan-1 |archive-date=6 January 2023 |location=Putrajaya}}</ref>
| 7 days 100%<ref name="MY22" />
|
|
|
|
|-
| Mongolia
| 120 days 70%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| Myanmar
| 12 weeks 66.7%
| Six days of "casual leave" that can be used by fathers to assist their spouses at the time of confinement
|
|
|
|
|-
| Nepal
| 98 days<ref name=":25">{{cite web |url=https://nepaleconomicforum.org/neftake/nepal-labor-act-2074/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920063412/https://nepaleconomicforum.org/neftake/nepal-labor-act-2074/ |archive-date=20 September 2020 |title=Nepal Labor Act 2074 {{!}} Neftake}}</ref>
| 15 days<ref name=":25"/>
|
|
|
|
|-
| Oman
| 14 weeks, 100%; 50 days prior to and 50 days after birth (per Omani Labor Law, Royal Decree No. 35/2003, 26 April 2003).<ref name="OmanGovt-LaborLaw2003">{{cite web |url=https://www.manpower.gov.om/portal/En/pdf/toc_en.pdf |title=قانون العمل | trans-title = toc_en |date=26 April 2003 |publisher=Oman Government |access-date=31 July 2014}}</ref>
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| {{wipe|Pakistan}}
| 180 days for the birth of the first child, 120 days for the second, and 90 days for the third, 100%. For additional children unpaid leave can be granted.<ref name=":24">{{cite web |url=https://www.mercer.com/our-thinking/law-and-policy-group/pakistan-paid-maternity-paternity-leave-mandated.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205073539/https://www.mercer.com/our-thinking/law-and-policy-group/pakistan-paid-maternity-paternity-leave-mandated.html |archive-date=5 February 2021 |title=Pakistan: Paid maternity, paternity leave mandated {{!}} Mercer}}</ref>
|30 days 100% for the first three separate births. For additional children, unpaid leave can be granted.<ref name=":24"/>
|
|
|
|
|-
| {{wipe|Philippines}}
| 105 days 100%, applicable also to miscarriages. 7 days' 100% parental leave per year for solo parents until the child is 18, or indefinitely if the child has a disability.
| 14 days' paid paternity leave for married workers. Seven days' 100% parental leave per year for solo parents until the child is 18, or indefinitely if the child has a disability.
|
|
|
|
|-
| Qatar
| 50 days 100% for civil servants
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| Saudi Arabia
| 10 weeks 50% or 100%
| Three days
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Place:Singapore|Singapore]]
| 16 weeks 100% (Singaporean citizen) or 12 weeks 67% (non-Singaporean citizen)<ref name=mom_maternity/>
| 2 weeks of 100% government-paid paternity leave for fathers. Up to 4 weeks of 100% government-paid shared parental leave to allow fathers to share up to 4 weeks of the working mother's maternity leave entitlement. (all covered under Employment Act)<ref>{{cite web|title=Paternity Leave|url=http://www.mom.gov.sg/employment-practices/leave-and-holidays/Pages/paternity-leave.aspx|publisher=Ministry of Manpower, Singapore|access-date=21 January 2020}}</ref>
|
|
|
| 16 weeks of maternity leave is restricted to women whose children are Singapore citizens and has served her employer for at least 90 days before the child's birth.<ref name=mom_maternity>{{cite web|title=Maternity Leave|url=http://www.mom.gov.sg/employment-practices/leave-and-holidays/Pages/maternity-leave.aspx|publisher=Ministry of Manpower, Singapore|access-date=21 January 2020}}</ref>
|-
| Sri Lanka
| 12 weeks 100% (84 working days), 84 days 50%
| 3 days 100% (only for state sector employees). For private sector, it is as per company policies.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wickrama Adittiya |first1=Shailendree |title=Paternity in the state sector |url=http://www.themorning.lk/biz-pg-5-lead-paternity-in-the-state-sector/ |access-date=1 June 2020 |publisher=The Morning}}</ref>
| 84 days
| 
|
|
|-
| Syrian Arab Republic
| 50 days 70%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| Taiwan
| 8 weeks 100% for more than six months of employment or 50% for less six months of employment
| 5 days 100%
|Two years of unpaid leave under certain conditions (also can be partly paid from Employment Insurance Parental Leave Allowance)<ref name=":23">{{cite web |url=https://ins-globalconsulting.com/taiwan-business-guides/learn-about-taiwan-labor-law/taiwan-guide-maternity-paternity-leave/ |title = Maternity & Paternity Leave in Taiwan - INS Global| date=12 May 2022 }}</ref>
|Two years of unpaid leave under certain conditions (also can be partly paid from Employment Insurance Parental Leave Allowance)<ref name=":23"/>
|
|
|-
| Thailand
| 98 days (100% of salary during the first 45 days of leave, and that first half of the leave period is paid by the employer. The second half of leave is paid by social security [at 50%, and subject to a monthly cap of THB 15,000]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://shieldgeo.com/maternity-and-paternity-leave-in-thailand-a-guide-for-overseas-employers/ |title = Maternity and Paternity Leave in Thailand: A Guide for Overseas Employers|date = 4 September 2020}}</ref>
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Place:United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]]
| 45 days 100% (plus an additional unpaid leave, there is total of 100 days' maternity leave)
|
| 55 days 
|
|
| Maternity leave at 100% pay is subject to the employee having served continuously for not less than one year. The maternity leave shall be granted with half-pay if the woman has not completed one year.
|-
| Vietnam
| 4–6 months 100%
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| Yemen
| 60 days 100%
|
|
|
|
|
|}

=== Europe and Central Asia ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! rowspan=2 | Country
! colspan=2 | Maternity leave
! colspan=2 | Paternity leave
! colspan=2 | Parental{{efn|Either parent}} leave
! rowspan=2 | Source of payment
|-
! Length (weeks)
! Pay
! Length (weeks)
! Pay
! Length (weeks)
! Pay
|-
| Albania
| 52<ref name="Addati p 138"/>
| {{ntsh|62.1}}80% for 21 weeks; 50% remainder
| 0<ref name="Addati p 159">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 159</ref>
| {{n/a}}
| 2<ref name="Addati p 159"/>
| {{nts|100}}%
| Mixed (Social security for maternity leave; employer liability for parental leave)
|-
| [[Religion:Andorra|Andorra]]||20<ref name="upr-info.org">[https://www.upr-info.org/sites/default/files/document/andorra/session_36_-_may_2020/a_hrc_46_11_e.pdf Andorra] upr-info.org {{dead link|date=July 2023}}</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||4<ref name="upr-info.org"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 154"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| [[Place:Armenia|Armenia]]||20<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 159"/>||{{n/a}}||156<ref name="Addati p 159"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||Social security
|-
| Austria||16<ref name="Addati p 136">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 136</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 154"/>||{{n/a}}||104<ref name="Addati p 154"/>||Flat rate||Social security
|-
| [[Place:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]]||18<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 159"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||156<ref name="Addati p 159"/>||Flat rate||Social security
|-
| {{wipe|Belarus}}||18<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 159"/>||{{n/a}}||156<ref name="Addati p 159"/>||80% of minimum wage||Social security
|-
| Belgium||15<ref name="Addati p 136"/>||{{ntsh|76.9}}82% for 4 weeks; 75% for remainder, with a maximum||2<ref name="Addati p 155">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 155</ref>||{{ntsh|87.4}}100% for 3 days; 82% remainder||There are 17 weeks of leave for each parent, with different options of using it: in one go, in several parts, by reducing work hours, by taking one half day or one full day off per week.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thevillage.be/admin-rights/types-of-leave/parental-leave/|title = Parental leave in Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.activpayroll.com/news-articles/belgiums-flexible-parental-leave-law-introduced |title = Belgium: Flexible Parental Leave - activpayroll|date = 7 July 2021}}</ref>
 ||Flat rate||Mixed (3 days' paternity leave employer liability; Social security)
|-
| Bosnia and Herzegovina||52<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{ntsh|75}}50–100%||1+<ref name="Addati p 159"/>||{{nts|100}}%||156<ref name="Addati p 159"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| Bulgaria||58<ref name=":20">"[http://www.lex.bg/laws/ldoc/1594373121 Lex.bg – Закони, правилници, конституция, кодекси, държавен вестник, правилници по прилагане]". Retrieved 7 February 2017.</ref>||{{nts|90}}%||2<ref name=":20"/>||{{nts|90}}%||104<ref name=":20"/>||Flat-rate for 52 weeks; unpaid reminder||Social security
|-
| Croatia||58<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{ntsh|44.8}}100% for 26 weeks; flat-rate remainder||2<ref name="Addati p 159"/>||{{nts|100}}%||156<ref name="Addati p 159"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| [[Place:Cyprus|Cyprus]]||18<ref name="Addati p 136"/>||{{nts|75}}%||2<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.willistowerswatson.com/en-IN/Insights/2017/11/cyprus-new-paid-paternity-leave-in-effect |title = Cyprus: New paid paternity leave in effect - WTW}}</ref>||{{nts|75}}%||18 each<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mlsi.gov.cy/mlsi/dlr/dlr.nsf/page48_en/page48_en?OpenDocument |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121203143932/http://www.mlsi.gov.cy/mlsi/dlr/dlr.nsf/page48_en/page48_en?OpenDocument |archive-date=3 December 2012 |title=Department of Labor relations - Parental Leave}}</ref>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||Social security
|-
| [[Place:Czech Republic|Czech Republic]]||28<ref name="Addati p 136"/>||{{nts|70}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 155"/>||{{n/a}}||156<ref name="Addati p 155"/>||Flat rate||Social security
|-
| {{wipe|Denmark}}||18<ref name="Addati p 136"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 155"/>||{{nts|100}}%||32 each (can be extended by 8 or 14 weeks)<ref>{{cite web|title=Retsinformation|url=https://www.retsinformation.dk/eli/lta/2020/106|access-date=2021-01-13|website=www.retsinformation.dk}}</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||Mixed (social security & employer)
|-
| Estonia||14<ref name="sotsamet">{{Cite web|url=https://sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee/en/family-benefits-and-allowances/family-benefits-overview/paternity-benefit-and-paternity-leave|title=Paternity benefit and paternity leave &#124; Sotsiaalkindlustusamet|website=sotsiaalkindlustusamet.ee}}</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||4<ref name="sotsamet"/>||{{nts|100}}%||68<ref name="sotsamet"/>||{{nts|100}}%||Social security
|-
| {{wipe|Finland}}||18<ref name="Addati p 136"/>||{{nts|70}}%||11<ref name="Addati p 155"/>||{{nts|70}}%, with a maximum||26<ref name="Addati p 155"/>||{{nts|70}}%||Social security
|-
| {{wipe|France}}||16<ref name="Addati p 136"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2+<ref name="Addati p 155"/>||{{nts|100}}%, with a maximum||156<ref name="Addati p 155"/>||Flat rate||Social security
|-
| Georgia||18<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{nts|100}}%||||||50{{citation needed|date=June 2016}}||||Social security
|-
| {{wipe|Germany}}||14<ref name="Addati p 136"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 156">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 156</ref>||{{n/a}}||156<ref name="Addati p 156"/>||{{ntsh||22.2}}67%, with a maximum, for 58 weeks (52 if father does not participate); unpaid remainder||Mixed (social security & employer liability)
|-
| Greece||17<ref name="Addati p 136"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2||{{nts|100}}%||17 each<ref name="Addati p 156"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| Hungary||24<ref name="Addati p 136"/>||{{nts|70}}%||1<ref name="Addati p 156"/>||{{nts|100}}%||156<ref name="Addati p 156"/>||70% (up to a ceiling) for 104 weeks; flat rate remainder||Social security
|-
| Iceland||13<ref name="Addati p 136"/>||{{nts|80}}%||12<ref name="Addati p 156"/>||{{nts|80}}%, with a maximum||26 each<ref name="Addati p 156"/>||{{ntsh|40}}80%, with a maximum, for first 13 weeks each; unpaid remainder||
|-
| Ireland||42<ref name="Addati p 137">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 137</ref>||{{ntsh|49.5}}80%, with a maximum, for 26 weeks; unpaid remainder||2<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/employment/employment_rights_and_conditions/leave_and_holidays/paternity_leave.html|title=Paternity leave|website=citizensinformation.ie}}</ref>||Flat rate (minimum €230 per week)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/social_welfare/social_welfare_payments/social_welfare_payments_to_families_and_children/paternity_benefit.html|title=Paternity Benefit|website=citizensinformation.ie}}</ref>||26 each<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/employment/employment_rights_and_conditions/leave_and_holidays/parental_leave.html|title=Parental leave|website=www.citizensinformation.ie}}</ref>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||Social security
|-
| Italy||22<ref name="Addati p 137"/>||{{nts|80}}%||<1<ref name="Addati p 156"/>||{{nts|100}}%||26 each<ref name="Addati p 156"/>||{{nts|30}}%||Social security
|-
| Kazakhstan||18<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{nts|100}}%||1<ref name="Addati p 159"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||156<ref name="Addati p 159"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||Social security
|-
| Kyrgyzstan||18<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||7 × minimum wage||||||78 (in some cases 156)<ref>[https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---europe/---ro-geneva/---sro-moscow/documents/publication/wcms_312651.pdf Evolving situation with family structure in Kyrgyzstan] ilo.org</ref>||Unpaid||Social security
|-
| Latvia||16<ref name="Addati p 137"/>||{{nts|80}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 156"/>||{{nts|80}}%||78 each<ref name="Addati p 156"/>||{{nts|70}}%||Social security
|-
| [[Finance:Liechtenstein|Liechtenstein]]||20<ref>{{cite web|url = http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/empl_portal/SSRinEU/Your%20social%20security%20rights%20in%20Liechtenstein_en.pdf|title = Your Social Security Rights in Liechtenstein|year = 2013|access-date = 17 May 2015|website = Employment, Social Affairs & Inclusion|publisher = European Commission}}</ref>||{{nts|80}}%||||||||||
|-
| Lithuania||18<ref name="Addati p 137"/>||{{nts|100}}%||4<ref name="Addati p 157">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 157</ref>||{{nts|100}}%, with a maximum||156<ref name="Addati p 157"/>||{{ntsh|46.7}}100% for 52 weeks or 70% for 104 weeks; unpaid remainder||Social security
|-
| Luxembourg||20<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://cns.public.lu/en/assure/vie-privee/enfant-maternite/attendre-un-enfant.html|title=Expecting a child|access-date=11 June 2018}}</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref>{{cite web|url=https://guichet.public.lu/citoyens/en/famille/parents/conges-naissance/conge-extraordinaire/index.html|title=Applying for leave for personal reasons (special leave) – Citoyens // Luxembourg|website=guichet.public.lu|access-date=11 June 2018}}</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||Both parents are entitled to equal parental leave. The "first parental leave" must be taken (by either the mother or the father) immediately after the end of maternity leave. The "second parental leave" may be taken by the other parent at any time up until the child's 6th birthday.

Parental leave can be taken in a variety of formats:

* 4 or 6 months' full-time leave
* 8 or 12 months with 50% leave and 50% working
* 4 months' leave split over a maximum period of 20 months
* 1 day per week on leave for up to 20 months

The latter three options require the employer's approval. The first option is an absolute right and cannot be refused by the employer.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://cae.public.lu/fr/conge-parental/informations-generales/modeles.html|title=Modèles|access-date=11 June 2018|language=fr}}</ref>

Self-employed people and apprentices are also fully entitled to parental leave.
|{{nts|100}}% (up to a maximum gross monthly salary of €3,761.59)<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://cae.public.lu/fr/faq/conge-parental.html|title=Congé parental|access-date=11 June 2018|language=fr}}</ref>||Mixed (maternity leave: social security; paternity leave: 80/20 social security/employer; parental leave: depends on formula chosen – employer pays for time worked, social security pays for time on leave)
|-
| North Macedonia||39<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{nts|100}}%||||||||||Social security
|-
| Malta||18<ref name="Addati p 137"/>||{{ntsh|77.8}}100% for 14 weeks||0<ref name="Addati p 157"/>||{{n/a}}||17 each<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dier.gov.mt/en/Employment-Conditions/Leave/Pages/Parental-Leave.aspx |title = Parental Leave}}</ref>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||Mixed (social security & employer liability)
|-
| Moldova||18<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 160">Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (13 May 2014). [http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/order-online/books/WCMS_242615/lang--en/index.htm Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world.] International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 160</ref>||{{n/a}}||156<ref name="Addati p 160"/>||Partially||Social security
|-
| [[Place:Monaco|Monaco]]||18<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dfm.mc/evenement/extension-of-maternity-leave-in-monaco/?lang=en|title=Extension of maternity leave in Monaco|website=Comité Droits des Femmes}}</ref>||{{nts|90}}%, with a maximum||0<ref name="Addati p 157"/>||{{n/a}}||0<ref name="Addati p 157"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| Montenegro||52<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{nts|100}}%||||||||||Social security
|-
| Netherlands||16<ref name="Addati p 137"/>||{{nts|100}}%, with a maximum||6<ref name="Addati p 157"/>||{{nts|100}}%||26 each (with part-time work)<ref name="Addati p 157"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid but eligible for tax-breaks||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{wipe|Norway}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Rights in connection with pregnancy, birth and adoption |url=https://info.altinn.no:443/en/start-and-run-business/working-conditions/print-leave-of-absence-and-holidays/rights-in-connection-with-pregnancy-birth-and-adoption/ |access-date=2020-12-15 |website=www.altinn.no |language=en}}</ref>||15 ||100% of earnings up to a ceiling of $66 000 (2023) || 2 + 15 ||100% of earnings up to a ceiling of $66 000 (2023) || Paid leave: 16 weeks; Unpaid leave: 52 weeks<ref name=":26">{{cite web |title=Altinn - Rights in connection with pregnancy, birth and adoption |url=https://info.altinn.no/en/start-and-run-business/working-conditions/print-leave-of-absence-and-holidays/rights-in-connection-with-pregnancy-birth-and-adoption/}}</ref>||100% of earnings up to a ceiling of $66 000 (2023)||Mixed (Social security expect first two weeks of paternity leave)
|-
|19
|80% of earnings up to a ceiling of $66 000 (2023)
|2 + 19
|80% of earnings up to a ceiling of $66 000 (2023)
|Paid leave: 18 weeks; Unpaid leave: 52 weeks<ref name=":26"/>
|80% of earnings up to a ceiling of $66 000 (2023)
|Mixed (Social security expect first two weeks of paternity leave)
|-
| {{wipe|Poland}}||26<ref name="Addati p 137"/>||{{nts|100}}%||2<ref name="Addati p 157"/>||{{nts|100}}%||156<ref name="Addati p 157"/>||60% for 26 weeks; flat rate for 104; unpaid remainder||Social security
|-
| Portugal||17 (or 21)<ref name="Addati p 137"/>||{{ntsh|81}}100% for 17 weeks or 80% for 21||4<ref name="Addati p 157"/>||{{nts|100}}%||Tere are two types of leave: Paid leave: 13 each; "sharing bonus" of 4 weeks if initial leave shared.<ref name="Addati p 157" /> Unpaid leave: After the paid leave, and only if this leave has been taken, one of the parents may take up to two years of childcare leave (licença para assistência a filho) on a full-time basis, extended to three years when there is a third or subsequent child.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.leavenetwork.org/fileadmin/user_upload/k_leavenetwork/country_notes/2018/FINAL.Portugal2018.pdf
|title=Portugal|date=April 2018|author1=Karin Wall|author2=Mafalda Leitão|website=leavenetwork.org|access-date=30 July 2023}}</ref>
|Partly 30%, partly unpaid||Social security
|-
| Romania||18 (9 weeks before the anticipated date of birth, and 9 weeks after the anticipated date of birth)<ref name="Addati p 137"/>||{{nts|85}}%||5 days (15 days if an infant care course is taken). Can be taken at any point within the first eight weeks after the birth of the baby.<ref name="Addati p 158">{{cite web |last=a.s |first=Petit Press |date=2017-05-12 |title=Fathers also take care of their children |url=https://spectator.sme.sk/c/20530775/fathers-also-take-care-of-their-children.html |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=spectator.sme.sk |language=en}}</ref>||{{nts|100}}%||One parent is entitled to:<br />104 weeks (so until the child reaches the age of two; if taken by the mother, it includes the maternal leave after the birth); or 156 weeks if the child has a disability (so until the child reaches the age of three).<ref name="OUG nr. 11/2010">Romanian Government Emergency Ordinance nr. 11/2010, as modified by GEO 55/2017. [http://www.euroavocatura.ro/print2.php?print2=lege&idItem=1291]</ref><br />Other parent is entitled to only 4 weeks (can be taken at any point during the first 2–3 years of the child's upbringing).<ref name="OUG nr. 11/2010"/>||{{nts|85}}% with a maximum (8500 lei per month)<ref name="OUG nr. 11/2010"/>||Social security
|-
| {{wipe|Russia}}||20<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{nts|100}}%, with a maximum||0<ref name="Addati p 160"/>||{{n/a}}||156<ref name="Addati p 160"/>||{{ntsh|20}}40%, with a maximum, for 78 weeks; unpaid remainder||Social security
|-
| Serbia||20<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{nts|100}}%||1+<ref name="Addati p 160"/>||{{nts|100}}%||52 (only mothers)<ref name="Addati p 160"/>||{{ntsh|70.1}}100% for 26 weeks; 60% for 12 weeks; 30% for 12 weeks||Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
|-
| Slovakia||34<ref name="Addati p 137"/>||{{nts|65}}%||0||28<ref name="Addati p 158"/> 65%{{n/a}}||156<ref name="Addati p 158" />||Flat rate
|Social security
|-
| Slovenia||15<ref name="Addati p 137"/>||{{nts|100}}%||4<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.leavenetwork.org/fileadmin/user_upload/k_leavenetwork/country_notes/2018/FINAL.Slovenia2018.pdf|title=Slovenia|date=April 2018|author=Nada Stropnik|website=leavenetwork.org|access-date=30 July 2023}}</ref>||{{ntsh|13.3}}100%, with a ceiling||37<ref name="Addati p 158"/>||{{nts|100}}%, with a ceiling||Social security
|-
| {{wipe|Spain}}||16<ref name="strongabogados.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.strongabogados.com/maternity-leave.php|title=Maternity / paternity leave in Spain|website=www.strongabogados.com}}</ref> ||{{nts|100}}%|| 16<ref name="strongabogados.com"/> ||{{nts|100}}% ||156 (including maternity/paternity leave, after which it starts)||Unpaid||Social security
|-
| Sweden||12<ref name="Sweden">{{cite web|url=https://www.forsakringskassan.se/english/for-employers/parental-leave|title=Employees and parental leave|publisher=Försäkringskassan|access-date=9 August 2016}}</ref>||{{nts|80}}%, with a maximum||12<ref name="Sweden"/>||{{nts|80}}%, with a maximum||56<ref name="Sweden"/>||80% (up to a ceiling) for 56 weeks; flat rate for remainder||Social security
|-
| {{wipe|Switzerland}}||14<ref name="Addati p 137"/>||{{nts|80}}%, with a maximum||2<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bsv.admin.ch/bsv/en/home/social-insurance/eo-msv/grundlagen-und-gesetze/eo-vaterschaftsurlaub.html | title=Paternity leave }}</ref>||{{nts|80}}%, with a maximum||0 (24 in Geneva) <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/politics/geneva-to-introduce-pioneering-parental-leave-scheme/48598942 | title=Geneva to introduce pioneering parental leave scheme | date=18 June 2023 }}</ref><ref name="Addati p 158"/>||{{n/a}}||Social security
|-
| Tajikistan||20<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 160"/>||{{n/a}}||156<ref name="Addati p 160"/>||Flat rate for 78 weeks; unpaid remainder||Social security
|-
| [[Place:Turkey|Turkey]]||16<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{nts|66.70}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 160"/>||{{n/a}}||26 (only mothers)<ref name="Addati p 160"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||Social security
|-
| Turkmenistan||16<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{nts|100}}%||||||156<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---europe/---ro-geneva/---sro-moscow/documents/publication/wcms_312628.pdf|title=Review of the situation in the Turkmenistan labor market: Gender aspects
|website=ILO|access-date=30 July 2023}}</ref>||Unpaid||Social security
|-
| {{wipe|Ukraine}}||18<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 160"/>||{{n/a}}||156<ref name="Addati p 160"/>||Flat rate for 78 weeks; childcare allowance remainder||Social security
|-
| {{wipe|United Kingdom}}||52<ref name="Addati p 137"/> (2 weeks mandatory for the mother, up to 50 of the remainder can be transferred to the father as shared parental leave<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/shared-parental-leave-and-pay|title=Shared Parental Leave and Pay|access-date=7 November 2017}}</ref>)||{{ntsh|83.1}}90% for 6 weeks; 90%, with a maximum, for 32 weeks; unpaid remainder||2<ref name="Addati p 158"/> (plus up to 50 weeks transferred from the mother as shared parental leave)||{{nts|90}}%, with a maximum||13 each<ref name="Addati p 158"/>||{{ntsh|0}}Unpaid||Mixed (employers reimbursed)
|-
| Uzbekistan ||18<ref name="Addati p 138"/>||{{nts|100}}%||0<ref name="Addati p 160"/>||{{n/a}}||156<ref name="Addati p 160"/>||{{ntsh|13.3}}20% of minimum wage for 104 weeks; unpaid remainder||Social security
|}
{{noteslist}}

===Oceania===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! rowspan=2 | Country
! colspan=2 | Maternity leave
! colspan=2 | Paternity leave
! colspan=2 | Parental{{efn|Either parent}} leave
! rowspan=2 | Source of payment
|-
! Length (weeks)
! Pay
! Length (weeks)
! Pay
! Length (weeks)
! Pay
|-
| {{wipe|Australia}}||18||Parental Leave Pay is based on the weekly rate of the national minimum wage which is A$812.45 per week or A$162.49 per day before tax as of 1 July 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.servicesaustralia.gov.au/how-much-parental-leave-pay-you-can-get?context=22191|title=How much can you get|website=Australian Government Department of Human Services|access-date=20 August 2022}}</ref> In most cases, the Australian Government makes PLP to the employer, who then pays the employee and as such PLP is a taxable Centrelink payment. However, PLP from the Australian Government does not affect paid parental leave offered by the employer and is therefore paid in addition.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fairwork.gov.au/leave/maternity-and-parental-leave/paid-parental-leave|title=Paid parental leave|website=Fair Work Ombudsman|access-date=20 August 2022}}</ref>||5||National Minimum Wage (2 weeks); unpaid (3 weeks)||Up to 52 weeks' shared between the parents||Unpaid||Mixed
|-
| Fiji||12||Flat rate||0||N/A||0||N/A|| 
|-
| [[Earth:New Zealand|New Zealand]]||26<ref name=":22">{{cite web |url=https://www.govt.nz/browse/work/parental-leave/taking-parental-leave/ |title=Taking parental leave |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=New Zealand Government |access-date=5 May 2020 }}</ref> ||Maximum $585.80<ref name=":22"/> ||2||Unpaid||up to 52 weeks shared between the parents||Partly paid||
|-
| Papua New Guinea||12||Unpaid||0||N/A||0||N/A||N/A
|-
| Solomon Islands||12||25%||0||N/A||0||N/A||
|}
{{noteslist}}

== Parental leave policies in the United Nations ==
As international organizations are not subject to the legislation of any country, they have their own internal legislation on parental leave.
{| class=wikitable
|-
! Organization
! Paid maternity leave
! Paid paternity leave
! Unpaid parental leave
! Restrictions
|-
| {{wipe|United Nations}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Leave – Family leave, Maternity leave and Paternity leave|url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/fpgenderpolicies.htm#LEAVE|work=Gender related United Nations system policies|publisher=United Nations|access-date=5 October 2012}}</ref>
| 16 weeks 100% (however, no fewer than 10 weeks must be after delivery, even if the pre-delivery leave was longer due to a late birth)
| 4 weeks 100% (or 8 weeks for staff members serving at locations where they are not allowed to live with their family)
|Special leave without pay for a period of up to two years may be granted as parental leave under staff rule 105.2 (a) (iii) b to a staff member who is the mother or the father of a newly born or adopted child, provided the staff member has a permanent appointment, or has completed three years of continuous service on a fixed-term appointment and is expected by the Secretary-General to continue in service for at least six months beyond the date of return from the proposed parental leave.
| The fact that a staff member is or will be on parental leave cannot be a factor in deciding contract renewal. To ensure that this is enforced, if a contract ends while the staff member is on parental leave, the contract must be extended to cover the duration of such leave.
|}

== Parental leave policies by countries ==

=== Luxembourg ===
Parents in Luxembourg are entitled to parental leave for both childbirth and adoption. When the mother gives birth, regardless of whether she is an employee, self-employed or an apprentice, she is entitled to pre-natal maternity leave of 8 weeks before the expected due date and 12 weeks' post-natal leave.<ref name=":10">{{cite web|url=https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/living/family/conges-parents.html|title=Types of parental leave|website=luxembourg.public.lu|date=3 March 2022 |language=en|access-date=18 April 2023}}</ref> The father, meanwhile, gets 10 days' leave after the birth, which must be taken within 2 months of the child's birth.<ref name=":10"/> For adoptions, one of parents can take up to 12 weeks' leave if the adopted child is under the age of 12.<ref name=":10"/> Luxembourg provides a fixed compensation rate during parental leave, which is €1,778, while most of the other European countries get compensation as a percentage of the salary.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1600/RR1666/RAND_RR1666.pdf|title=Paternity and parental leave policies across the European Union|last=Belle|first=Janna van|website=rand.org|access-date=14 December 2018}}</ref> Luxembourg doesn't have a policy for maternity allowance in place or in addition to the maternity leave pay.<ref name=":15">{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/els/soc/PF2_1_Parental_leave_systems.pdf|title=OECD – Social Policy Division – Directorate of Employment, Labour and Social Affairs, PF2.1: Key characteristics of parental leave systems|website=oecd.org|access-date=14 December 2018}}</ref> Maternity allowance means the money paid during pregnancy or just after child birth.<ref name=":15"/> According 2013 OECD data, public expenditure on maternal and paternal leaves on per child born was the most in Luxembourg out of almost all the European counties at the 35,000 at prices and PPPs of 2013 in USD.<ref name=":15"/>

On 1 December 2016, "family leave reform bill 7060" was passed in the Luxembourg parliament.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.etui.org/ReformsWatch/Luxembourg/Luxembourg-modified-labour-code-improves-paternity-leave-from-1-January-2018|title=European Trade Union Institute (ETUI) – Luxembourg: modified labour code improves paternity leave from 1 January 2018 / Luxembourg / ReformsWatch / Home|website=etui.org|access-date=14 December 2018}}</ref> According to this new reform, now fathers and mothers can take leave together.<ref name=":14">{{cite web|url=https://luxtimes.lu/archives/4731-luxembourg-s-new-parental-leave-law-enters-into-force-december-1|title=Luxembourg's new parental leave law enters into force 1 December|website=luxtimes.lu|date=11 December 2017 |access-date=14 December 2018}}</ref> The first leave has to be taken right after maternity leave and the second can be taken before the child turns 6 years old.<ref name=":14"/> This new reform provides much more flexibility. The parent has four options: either they can take 4 to 6 months' full leave, 8 to 12 months' part-time leave, take one day off per week for 20 months or can take 4 individual months within 20 months.<ref name=":14"/> The official Luxembourg government portal suggests that according to the data collected more than 85% of the parents are extremely happy with this new reform and 79% people think that this new system is better than the older system.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lesfrontaliers.lu/famille/le-conge-parental-toujours-plus-populaire-au-luxembourg/#:~:text=%2B41%20%25%20entre%202017%20et%202021&text=En%202017%2C%208%20251%20parents,une%20progression%20impressionnante%20de%2041%20%25.|title=Le congé parental toujours plus populaire au Luxembourg|language=fr|website=lesfrontaliers.lu|access-date=18 April 2023}}</ref>

=== France ===
In France, there is maternity leave, paternity/partner leave and parental leave. The maternity leave, the number of weeks a biological mother is allowed to leave work is 16 weeks in France—6 weeks before birth and 10 weeks post-birth.<ref name=":16">Ray, Rebecca. "A detailed look at parental leave policies in 21 OECD countries." ''Washington, DC: Center for Economic and Policy Research'' (2008).</ref> Maternity leave is 26 weeks for the third and subsequent children, and 34 weeks for twins. Maternity leave is mandatory, the mother must take at least part of the leave, complete renouncement of the leave is forbidden.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.service-public.fr/particuliers/vosdroits/F2265|title=Congé maternité d'une salariée du secteur privé|website=service-public.fr|language=Fr|access-date=2 August 2019}}</ref> Paternity/partner leave is 25 days.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.service-public.fr/particuliers/vosdroits/F3156 |title = Congé de paternité et d'accueil de l'enfant d'un salarié du secteur privé {{!}} service-public.fr}}</ref> Parental leave in France (Congé Parental) refers to the system of leave that is guaranteed to both fathers and mothers in cases of either childbirth or adoption, and can be taken for up to three years. In France, there are differences regarding the regulation on parental leave, based on number of children, how it is shared between parents, payment, and type of job. Payment varies between six months and three years.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.previssima.fr/dossier/quelle-remuneration-pour-un-conge-parental.html |title = Quelle rémunération pour un congé parental ? - Previssima| date=10 May 2023 }}</ref>

=== India ===
Maternity leave in India is 26 weeks (8 prenatal and 18 postnatal) and is paid at 100% rate of the employee’s salary. India's maternity leave policy is regulated by The Code on Social Security, 2020.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://labour.gov.in/ebook/SS/files/basic-html/page54.html | title=Page 54 - the Code on Social Security, 2020 }}</ref> The employee must have worked in the company for at least 80 working days before availing this benefit and the woman would also be entitled to a medical bonus alongside the 100% paid leave. For women with already two children, the maternity leave reduces to 12 weeks.<ref name="paycheck.in">{{cite web|url=https://paycheck.in/labour-law-india/maternity-and-work |title=Maternity and Work in India - Maternity Leave, Pay and Rights in India |publisher=Paycheck.in |date= |accessdate=2022-08-06}}</ref> Only employees of state-owned enterprises and civil servants are entitled to paternity leave which is two weeks, while women civil servants are entitled to one year worth of parental leave, including the maternity leave.<ref name="paycheck.in"/>

=== Germany ===
Maternity leave in Germany is 14 weeks (6 prenatal and 8 postnatal), and parental leave is 3 years. Parents in Germany can request up to 3 years parental leave, which is partly paid with parental allowance. Parental leave can be taken immediately after maternity leave (the weeks of maternity leave after birth are included in the duration of the parental leave) or immediately after birth (for fathers) or it may be taken at later times. Parental leave can be taken all in a go, or in a fractioned way. It can be taken all before the child's 3rd birthday, or it may be extended until the 8th birthday; however at least one year must be taken before the third birthday (otherwise that year is lost). All parents who have legal parental rights are entitled to parental leave (including non-biological and same-sex). Parental allowance is paid during part of the parental leave; the amount and duration of payment has changed several times throughout the years. It is possible to be on parental leave and work a limited amount of hours, without losing the parental leave benefits. The advantage of working while on parental leave is that vacation (annual leave) continues to accrue, if one does not work at all on parental leave, that person's vacation leave entitlement reduces by one twelfth for each month during which one is taking parental leave (i.e. after a full year of parental leave the vacation entitlement for next year has been lost, unless there are remainder vacation days which had been accumulated before the parental leave, or unless the employer agrees otherwise). Parental leave is job protected, the employee has the right to return to the same job, or in certain situations, to a different position that is similar to the previous one.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bmfsfj.de/resource/blob/139908/72ce4ea769417a058aa68d9151dd6fd3/elterngeld-elterngeldplus-englisch-data.pdf|title=Parental Allowance and Parental Leave|website=bmfsfj.de|access-date=30 July 2023}}</ref>

=== Canada ===
Canada has two parental leave benefit programs for the care of a newborn or adopted child: a federal program, and provincial programs.<ref name=":102">{{cite journal | url=https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/cjs/index.php/CJS/article/view/29504 | doi=10.29173/cjs29504 | title=Parental Leave and Intra-Regime Differences in a Liberal Country: The Case of Four Canadian Provinces | year=2020 | last1=Mathieu | first1=Sophie | last2=Doucet | first2=Andrea | last3=McKay | first3=Lindsey | journal=Canadian Journal of Sociology | volume=45 | issue=2 | pages=169–194 | s2cid=158913698 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Every Canadian province offers at least seventeen weeks of maternity leave, with the exception of Alberta - where maternity leave is fifteen weeks long.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rebecca|first=Ray|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1135038647|title=A detailed look at parental leave policies in 21 OECD countries|date=2008|publisher=Center for Economic and Policy Research|oclc=1135038647}}</ref> The eligibility for maternity leave is that the individual has to be the child's birth mother (including surrogate mother).<ref name=how>{{cite web | url=https://www.slice.ca/how-does-maternity-leave-work-in-canada/ | title=How Does Maternity Leave Really Work in Canada? | date=22 October 2021 }}</ref> There have to be at least 15 weeks leave (maternity leave can start up to 12 weeks before birth).<ref name=how /> In addition to maternity leave, there is parental leave, the length of which depends on payment: there is an option between ''standard parental leave'' up to 40 weeks (but one parent cannot receive more than 35 weeks) which is paid at the rate of 55% up to $638 weekly; and ''extended parental leave'' up to 69 weeks (but one parent cannot receive more than 61 weeks) which is paid at the rate of 33% up to $383.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.canada.ca/en/services/benefits/ei/ei-maternity-parental.html | title=EI maternity and parental benefits: What these benefits offer | date=December 2015 }}</ref>

Due to parental leave being under provincial jurisdiction, there is a decentralized nature to the policies concerning leave benefit programs. For example, the province of Quebec has some of the greatest maternity leave benefits in the country.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McKay|first1=Lindsey|last2=Mathieu|first2=Sophie|last3=Doucet|first3=Andrea|date=2016|title=Parental-leave rich and parental-leave poor: Inequality in Canadian labour market based leave policies|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022185616643558|journal=Journal of Industrial Relations|language=en|volume=58|issue=4|pages=543–562|doi=10.1177/0022185616643558|s2cid=156166699|issn=0022-1856}}</ref> In Quebec, a greater number of people are eligible for parental leave benefits and there are more benefits they can receive, compared to other provinces.<ref name=":102" /> The variety among provinces concerning parental leave has raised debates on whether there should be a unitary federal program for parental leave policies in Canada.<ref name=":102" />

===United Kingdom (parental bereavement leave)===
Statutory Parental Bereavement Leave is available under UK legislation <ref>UK Legislation, [https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/24 Parental Bereavement (Leave and Pay) Act 2018], 13 September 2018, accessed 24 October 2022</ref> to the parents of a child who dies under the age of 18, or where a child is stillborn after 24 weeks of pregnancy.<ref>ACAS, [https://www.acas.org.uk/example-bereavement-policy-template Bereavement policy template], accessed 24 October 2022</ref> In Northern Ireland this entitlement was provided for in the Parental Bereavement (Leave and Pay) Act (Northern Ireland) 2022.<ref>UK Legislation, [https://www.legislation.gov.uk/nia/2022/5 Parental Bereavement (Leave and Pay) Act (Northern Ireland) 2022], 21 March 2022, accessed 24 October 2022</ref>

== Miscarriage leave ==
In some countries, parental leave is also offered to parents who have had a miscarriage. 
*The Philippines - 60 days' fully paid leave for the mother for miscarriages (before 20 weeks of gestation) or emergency termination of the pregnancy (on the 20th week or after)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra2019/ra_11210_2019.html|title=REPUBLIC ACT No. 11210|access-date=2021-03-25}}</ref> The husband of the mother gets 7 days' fully paid leave up to the 4th pregnancy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ilo.org/dyn/travail/docs/1206/Republic%25252520Act%25252520No%252525208187%25252520-%25252520Paternity%25252520Leave%25252520Act%25252520of%252525201996.pdf|title=Republic Act 8187|access-date=2021-03-25}}</ref>
*India - six weeks' leave for the mother<ref>{{cite web|url=https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/TheMaternityBenefitAct1961.pdf|title=Maternity Benefit Act of 1961|access-date=2021-03-25}}</ref>
*Mauritius - two weeks' leave for the mother<ref name=":21">{{cite web|url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_242615.pdf|title=Maternity and paternity at work|access-date=2021-03-26}}</ref>
*Indonesia - six weeks' leave for the mother<ref name=":21"/>
*New Zealand - 3 days' bereavement leave for both parents<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-56521171|title=New Zealand to allow bereavement leave|work=BBC News |date=25 March 2021 |access-date=2021-03-25}}</ref>
*Taiwan - five days, one week or four weeks, depending on how advanced the pregnancy was, for the mother<ref name=":23"/>

== See also ==
* [[Social:Baby bonus|Baby bonus]]
* [[Social:Leave of absence|Leave of absence]]
* Maternity leave and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
* [[Social:Pregnancy discrimination|Pregnancy discrimination]]
* [[Medicine:Sick leave|Sick leave]]
* [[Social:Time bind|Time bind]]
* Postpartum care
* [[Finance:Motherhood penalty|Motherhood penalty]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Altintas | first1 = Evrim | last2 = Sullivan | first2 = Oriel | title = Trends in fathers' contribution to housework and childcare under different welfare policy regimes | journal = Social Politics | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 81–108 | doi = 10.1093/sp/jxw007 | date =Spring 2017 | doi-access = free }}
* Blofield, Merike; Touchton, Michael (2020). "Moving Away from Maternalism? The Politics of Parental Leave Reforms in Latin America". ''Comparative Politics''. 
*{{Cite journal | last = Mariskind | first = Clare | title = Good mothers and responsible citizens: Analysis of public support for the extension of paid parental leave | journal = Women's Studies International Forum | volume = 61 | pages = 14–19 | doi = 10.1016/j.wsif.2017.01.003 | date = March–April 2017 }}
* Sholar, Megan A. ''Getting Paid While Taking Time: The Women's Movement and the Development of Paid Family Leave Policies in the United States'' (Temple UP, 2016), 240 pp.
* {{Cite journal | last = White | first = Linda A. | s2cid = 157991462 | title = Which ideas, whose norms? Comparing the relative influence of international organizations on paid maternity and parental leave policies in liberal welfare states | journal = Social Politics | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 55–80 | doi = 10.1093/sp/jxw010 | date =Spring 2017 }}



{{DEFAULTSORT:Parental Leave}}
[[Category:Social programs]]
[[Category:Family law]]

{{Sourceattribution|Parental leave}}