View source for Social:Packaging

{{short description|Enclosure or protection of products for distribution, storage, and sale}}
[[File:Risperdal tablets.jpg|right|thumb|UK Risperdal Tablets 2000 in a blister pack, which was itself packaged in a folding carton made of paperboard.]]
'''Packaging''' is the [[Science|science]], [[Art|art]] and [[Engineering:Technology|technology]] of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of designing, evaluating, and producing packages. Packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing, [[Finance:Logistics|logistics]], sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, and sells.<ref>Soroka (2002) ''Fundamentals of Packaging Technology'', Institute of Packaging Professionals {{ISBN|1-930268-25-4}}</ref> In many countries it is fully integrated into government, business, institutional, industrial, and for personal use.

''Package labeling'' (American English) or ''labelling'' (British English) is any written, electronic, or [[Social:Graphic communication|graphic communication]] on the package or on a separate but associated label.  Many countries or regions have regulations governing the content of package labels.  Merchandising, branding, and persuasive graphics are not covered in this article.  

==History of packaging==

===Ancient era===
[[File:Ritual wine vessel - The Met.png|thumb|right|2055x200px|Bronze wine container from the 9th century BC.]]
The first packages used the natural materials available at the time: [[Engineering:Basket|basket]]s of reeds, wineskins (bota bags), [[Engineering:Wooden box|wooden box]]es, pottery [[Engineering:Vase|vase]]s, ceramic [[Social:Amphora|amphora]]e, wooden [[Engineering:Barrel|barrel]]s, woven bags, etc. Processed materials were used to form packages as they were developed:  first [[Chemistry:Glass|glass]] and [[Chemistry:Bronze|bronze]] vessels.  The study of old packages is an essential aspect of [[Earth:Archaeology|archaeology]].

The first usage of paper for packaging was sheets of treated mulberry bark used by the Chinese to wrap foods as early as the first or second century BC.<ref name="OSU">{{cite web |last= Paula|first= Hook|date=11 May 2017|title=A History of Packaging|url=https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/cdfs-133|publisher=Ohio State University|access-date=29 December 2020}}</ref>

The usage of paper-like material in Europe was when the [[History:Ancient Rome|Romans]] used low grade and recycled [[Engineering:Papyrus|papyrus]] for the packaging of incense.<ref name="CHARM2005"/>

The earliest recorded use of paper for packaging dates back to 1035, when a Persian traveller visiting markets in [[Place:Cairo|Cairo]], Arab Egypt, noted that vegetables, spices and hardware were wrapped in paper for the customers after they were sold.<ref name="CHARM2005">{{Cite journal|title=The Origins of Paper Based Packaging|author=Diana Twede|journal=Conference on Historical Analysis & Research in Marketing Proceedings|volume=12|year=2005|pages=288–300 [289]|url=http://faculty.quinnipiac.edu/charm/CHARM%20proceedings/CHARM%20article%20archive%20pdf%20format/Volume%2012%202005/288%20twede.pdf|access-date=March 20, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716105826/http://faculty.quinnipiac.edu/charm/CHARM%20proceedings/CHARM%20article%20archive%20pdf%20format/Volume%2012%202005/288%20twede.pdf|archive-date=July 16, 2011|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

===Modern era===

====Tinplate====
The use of [[Physics:Tinning|tinplate]] for packaging dates back to the 18th century. The manufacturing of tinplate was the [[Monopoly|monopoly]] of [[Place:Bohemia|Bohemia]] for a long time; in 1667 Andrew Yarranton, an English [[Engineering:Engineer|engineer]], and Ambrose Crowley brought the method to England where it was improved by ironmasters including Philip Foley.<ref>{{Citation|first=P.J.|last=Brown|title=Andrew Yarranton and the British tinplate industry|periodical=Historical Metallurgy|volume=22|year=1988|pages=42–48|issue=1}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|first=P.W.|last=King|title=Wolverley Lower Mill and the beginnings of the tinplate industry|periodical=Historical Metallurgy|volume=22|year=1988|pages=104–113|issue=2}}</ref> By 1697, John Hanbury<ref>{{Harvnb|King|1988|p= 109}}</ref> had a rolling mill at Pontypool for making "Pontypoole Plates".<ref>H.R. Schubert, ''History of the British iron and steel industry ... to 1775'', 429.</ref><ref>{{Citation|first=W.W.|last=Minchinton|title=The British tinplate industry: a history|year=1957|publisher=Clarendon Press, Oxford|page=10}}</ref> The method pioneered there of rolling iron plates by means of cylinders enabled more uniform black plates to be produced than was possible with the former practice of [[Engineering:Hammer|hammer]]ing.

Tinplate boxes first began to be sold from ports in the Bristol Channel in 1725.  The tinplate was shipped from Newport, Monmouthshire.<ref>Data extracted from D.P. Hussey ''et al., Gloucester Port Books Database'' (CD-ROM, University of Wolverhampton 1995).</ref> By 1805, 80,000 boxes were made and 50,000 exported. [[Biology:Tobacco|Tobacco]]nists in London began packaging snuff in metal-plated canisters from the 1760s onwards.

====Canning====
[[Image:Canning stewpan advertisement.jpg|thumb|200x200px|left|1914 magazine advertisement for cookware with instructions for home canning.]]
With the discovery of the importance of airtight containers for food preservation by French inventor Nicholas Appert, the tin canning process was patented by British merchant Peter Durand in 1810.<ref>{{cite web|last=Geoghegan |first=Tom |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-21689069 |title=BBC News - The story of how the tin can nearly wasn't |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=April 21, 2013 |access-date=June 4, 2013}}</ref> After receiving the patent, Durand did not himself follow up with canning food. He sold his patent in 1812 to two other Englishmen, Bryan Donkin and John Hall, who refined the process and product and set up the world's first commercial canning factory on Southwark Park Road, London. By 1813, they were producing the first canned goods for the Royal Navy.<ref>{{cite book|page=107|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eAA5M2eIWqwC|title=People and Industries|author=William H. Chaloner|publisher=Routledge|year=1963|isbn=978-0-7146-1284-3}}</ref>

The progressive improvement in canning stimulated the 1855 invention of the [[Engineering:Can opener|can opener]]. Robert Yeates, a cutlery and surgical instrument maker of Trafalgar Place West, Hackney Road, Middlesex, UK, devised a claw-ended can opener with a hand-operated tool that haggled its way around the top of metal cans.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Kitchen History|publisher=Taylor & Francis Group|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7IhN7lempUC|isbn=978-1-57958-380-4|date=September 27, 2004}}</ref> In 1858, another lever-type opener of a more complex shape was patented in the United States by Ezra Warner of Waterbury, Connecticut.

====Paper-based packaging====
[[File:Packing salt packages.jpg|thumb|200x200px|Packing folding cartons of salt.]]
Set-up boxes were first used in the 16th century and modern [[Engineering:Folding carton|folding carton]]s date back to 1839.  The first corrugated box was produced commercially in 1817 in England. Corrugated (also called pleated) paper received a British patent in 1856 and was used as a liner for tall hats. Scottish-born Robert Gair invented the pre-cut paperboard box in 1890—flat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes. Gair's invention came about as a result of an accident: as a Brooklyn printer and paper-bag maker during the 1870s, he was once printing an order of seed bags, and the metal ruler, commonly used to crease bags, shifted in position and cut them. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing in one operation he could make prefabricated paperboard boxes.<ref>{{cite book|title=Cartons, crates and corrugated board: handbook of paper and wood packaging technology|author1=Diana Twede  |author2=Susan E.M. Selke |name-list-style=amp |publisher=DEStech Publications|year=2005|isbn=978-1-932078-42-8|pages=41–42, 55–56|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kc0MSzFvrH8C}}</ref>

Commercial paper bags were first manufactured in Bristol, {{wipe|England}}, in 1844, and the American Francis Wolle patented a machine for automated bag-making in 1852.

===20th century===
Packaging advancements in the early 20th century included [[Chemistry:Bakelite|Bakelite]] closures on [[Engineering:Bottle|bottle]]s, transparent [[Chemistry:Cellophane|cellophane]] overwraps and panels on [[Engineering:Carton|carton]]s. These innovations increased processing efficiency and improved food safety.  As additional materials such as [[Chemistry:Aluminium|aluminum]] and several [[Chemistry:List of synthetic polymers|types of plastic]] were developed, they were incorporated into packages to improve performance and functionality.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Brody|first1=A. L|last2=Marsh|first2=K. S|title=Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology|year=1997|isbn=978-0-471-06397-1}}</ref>

[[File:HeroinHarrisonActNOLA.JPG|thumb|left|170x170px|[[Chemistry:Heroin|Heroin]] bottle and carton, early 20th century.]]
In 1952, [[Organization:Michigan State University|Michigan State University]] became the first university in the world to offer a degree in Packaging Engineering.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://packaging.msu.edu|title=Michigan State School of Packaging|access-date=February 11, 2012 |publisher=Michigan State University}}</ref>

In-plant recycling has long been typical for producing packaging materials. Post-consumer recycling of aluminum and paper-based products has been economical for many years:  since the 1980s, post-consumer recycling has increased due to curbside recycling, consumer awareness, and regulatory pressure.

[[File:First polythene pillbox.JPG|thumb|right|170x170px|A pill box made from [[Chemistry:Polyethylene|polyethylene]] in 1936.]]
Many prominent innovations in the packaging industry were developed first for military use.  Some military supplies are packaged in the same commercial packaging used for general industry. Other military packaging must transport [[Engineering:Materiel|materiel]], supplies, foods, etc. under severe distribution and storage conditions. Packaging problems encountered in [[Social:World War II|World War II]] led to Military Standard or "mil spec" regulations being applied to packaging, which was then designated "military specification packaging". As a prominent concept in the military, mil spec packaging officially came into being around 1941, due to operations in Iceland experiencing critical losses, ultimately attributed to bad packaging. In most cases, mil spec packaging solutions (such as barrier materials, field rations, [[Physics:Antistatic bag|antistatic bag]]s, and various shipping crates) are similar to commercial grade packaging materials, but subject to more stringent performance and quality requirements.<ref>{{cite web|last=Maloney|first=J.C.|title=The History and Significance of Military Packaging|work=Defence Packaging Policy Group|publisher=Defence Logistics Agency|date=July 2003|url=http://www.dla.mil/Portals/104/Documents/LandAndMaritime/V/VS/Packaging/LM_pkghistory_151007.pdf}}</ref>

{{As of|2003}}, the packaging sector accounted for about two percent of the gross national product in developed countries. About half of this market was related to food packaging.<ref>{{cite book|title=Technology of Cheesemaking: Second Edition|url=https://archive.org/details/technologycheese00lawb|url-access=limited|year=2010|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-8298-0|author=Y. Schneider|author2=C. Kluge |author3=U. Weiß |author4=H. Rohm |editor=Barry A. Law, A.Y. Tamime|page=[https://archive.org/details/technologycheese00lawb/page/n441 413]|chapter=Packaging Materials and Equipment}}</ref>
In 2019 the global food packaging market size was estimated at USD 303.26 billion, exhibiting a CAGR of 5.2% over the forecast period. Growing demand for packaged food by consumers owing to quickening pace of life and changing eating habits is expected to have a major impact on the market.

==The purposes of packaging and package labels==

Packaging and package labeling have several objectives<ref>{{cite conference
  | first = L
  | last = Bix
 |author2=Rifon |author3=Lockhart |author4=de la Fuente
  | title = The Packaging Matrix: Linking Package Design Criteria to the Marketing Mix
  | publisher = IDS Packaging
  | year = 2003
  | url =https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282313342
  | access-date = 16 September 2017}}</ref>
* '''Physical protection''' – The objects enclosed in the package may require protection from, among other things, mechanical [[Physics:Shock (mechanics)|shock]], [[Vibration|vibration]], [[Physics:Electrostatic discharge|electrostatic discharge]], compression, [[Physics:Temperature|temperature]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Choi |first= Seung-Jin|author2=Burgess |year=2007 |title=Practical mathematical model to predict the performance of insulating packages|journal=Packaging Technology and Science |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=369–380 |doi=10.1002/pts.762 |s2cid= 136558384}}</ref> etc.
* '''Barrier protection''' – A barrier to [[Chemistry:Oxygen|oxygen]], [[Physics:Water vapor|water vapor]], dust, etc., is often required. [[Physics:Permeation|Permeation]] is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain [[Chemistry:Desiccant|desiccant]]s or oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life. [[Chemistry:Modified atmosphere|Modified atmosphere]]s<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lee |first= Ki-Eun |author2=Kim |author3=An |author4=Lyu |author5=Lee |year=1998 |title=Effectiveness of modified atmosphere packaging in preserving a prepared ready-to-eat food|journal=Packaging Technology and Science|volume=21 |issue=7 |page= 417|doi=10.1002/pts.821 |s2cid= 98181751 }}</ref> or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, [[Biology:Asepsis|sterile]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Severin |first=J|year=2007 |title=New Methodology for Whole-Package Microbial Challenge Testing for Medical Device Trays|doi=10.1520/JTE100869|journal= Journal of Testing and Evaluation|volume=35|issue=4|page=100869}}</ref> and safe for the duration of the intended [[Finance:Shelf life|shelf life]] is a primary function. A barrier is also implemented in cases where segregation of two materials prior to end use is required, as in the case of special paints, glues, medical fluids, etc.
* '''Containment or agglomeration''' – Small objects are typically grouped together in one package for reasons of storage and selling efficiency. For example, a single box of 1000 marbles requires less physical handling than 1000 single marbles. [[Physics:Liquid|Liquid]]s, powders, and [[Chemistry:Granular material|granular material]]s need containment.
* '''Information transmission''' – Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport, [[Physics:Recycling|recycle]], or dispose of the package or product. With [[Chemistry:Medication|pharmaceutical]]s, food, [[Medicine:Medicine|medical]], and [[Chemistry:Chemical substance|chemical]] products, some types of information are [[Social:Mandatory labelling|required]] by government legislation. Some packages and labels also are used for [[Track and trace|track and trace]] purposes. Most items include their serial and [[Lot number|lot number]]s on the packaging, and in the case of food products, medicine, and some chemicals the packaging often contains an [[Finance:Shelf life|expiry/best-before date]], usually in a shorthand form. Packages may indicate their construction material with a symbol.
* '''Marketing''' – Packaging and labels can be used by [[Finance:Marketing|marketers]] to encourage potential buyers to purchase a product. Package graphic design and physical design have been important and constantly evolving phenomena for several decades. Marketing communications and graphic design are applied to the surface of the package and often to the [[Finance:Point of sale display|point of sale display]]. Most packaging is designed to reflect the brand's message and identity on the one hand while highlighting the respective product concept on the other hand.
[[File:Dual number tab on a tamper evident label.jpg|thumb|Permanent, tamper evident voiding label with a dual number tab to help keep packaging secure with the additional benefit of being able to track and trace parcels and packages.]]
[[File:Shampoo packet, single-serving.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A single-serving shampoo packet.]]
* '''Security''' – Packaging can play an important role in reducing the [[Security|security]] risks of shipment. Packages can be made with improved [[Tamper resistance|tamper resistance]] to deter manipulation and they can also have tamper-evident<ref>{{cite journal |last=Johnston |first= R.G.|year=1997|title=Effective Vulnerability Assessment of Tamper-Indicating Seals|url=http://library.lanl.gov/la-pubs/00418792.pdf|doi=10.1520/JTE11883J|journal= Journal of Testing and Evaluation|volume=25 |issue=4|page= 451}}</ref> features indicating that tampering has taken place. Packages can be engineered to help reduce the risks of [[Package pilferage|package pilferage]] or the theft and resale of products: Some package constructions are more resistant to pilferage than other types, and some have pilfer-indicating seals. [[Counterfeit consumer goods]], unauthorized sales (diversion), material substitution and tampering can all be minimized or prevented with such anti-counterfeiting technologies. Packages may include [[Authentication|authentication]] seals and use [[Security printing|security printing]] to help indicate that the package and contents are not counterfeit. Packages also can include anti-theft devices such as dye-packs, [[Radio-frequency identification|RFID]] tags, or [[Electronic article surveillance|electronic article surveillance]]<ref>[http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/anti-shoplifting-device.htm How Anti-shoplifting Devices Work”], HowStuffWorks.com</ref> tags that can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Using packaging in this way is a means of [[Finance:Retail loss prevention|retail loss prevention]].
* '''Convenience''' – Packages can have features that add convenience in distribution, handling, stacking, display, sale, opening, reclosing, using, dispensing, reusing, recycling, and ease of disposal
* '''Portion control''' – Single serving or single [[Medicine:Drug delivery|dosage]] packaging has a precise amount of contents to control usage. Bulk commodities (such as salt) can be divided into packages that are a more suitable size for individual households. It also aids the control of inventory: selling sealed one-liter bottles of milk, rather than having people bring their own bottles to fill themselves.
* '''Branding/Positioning''' – Packaging and labels are increasingly used to go beyond marketing to brand positioning, with the materials used and design chosen key to the storytelling element of brand development. Due to the increasingly fragmented media landscape in the digital age this aspect of packaging is of growing importance.

==Packaging types==
[[File:Food packages (1).jpg|right|thumb|Various types of household packaging for foods.]]
Packaging may be of several different types. For example, a ''transport package'' or ''distribution package'' can be the [[Engineering:Shipping container|shipping container]] used to ship, store, and handle the product or inner packages.  Some identify a ''consumer package'' as one which is directed toward a consumer or household.

Packaging may be described in relation to the type of product being packaged: [[Medicine:Medical device|medical device]] packaging, bulk [[Chemistry:Chemical substance|chemical]] packaging, [[Medicine:Over-the-counter drug|over-the-counter drug]] packaging, retail food packaging, military [[Engineering:Materiel|materiel]] packaging, [[Chemistry:Medication|pharmaceutical]] packaging, etc.

It is sometimes convenient to categorize packages by layer or function: ''primary'', ''secondary'', etc.
* Primary packaging is the material that first envelops the product and holds it. This usually is the smallest unit of distribution or use and is the package which is in direct contact with the contents.
* Secondary packaging is outside the primary packaging, and may be used to prevent pilferage or to group primary packages together.
* Tertiary or transit packaging is used for [[Finance:Logistics|bulk handling]], warehouse storage and transport shipping. The most common form is a [[Engineering:Pallet|pallet]]ized [[Engineering:Unit load|unit load]] that packs tightly into [[Finance:Containerization|container]]s.

These broad categories can be somewhat arbitrary.  For example, depending on the use, a shrink wrap can be primary packaging when applied directly to the product, secondary packaging when used to combine smaller packages, or tertiary packaging when used to facilitate some types of distribution, such as to affix a number of cartons on a pallet.

Packaging can also have categories based on the package form.  For example, ''thermoform packaging'' and ''flexible packaging'' describe broad usage areas.

==Labels and symbols used on packages==
{{main|Social:List of food labeling regulations}}
[[File:HK food drink Longevity brand Sweetened Milk Mar-2014 barcode a.jpg|thumb|upright|A UPC bar code on a can of condensed milk.]]
Many types of symbols for package labeling are nationally and internationally standardized.  For consumer packaging, symbols exist for product certifications (such as the [[Engineering:FCC Declaration of Conformity|FCC]] and TÜV marks), [[Social:Trademark|trademark]]s, proof of purchase, etc.  Some requirements and symbols exist to communicate aspects of consumer rights and safety, for example the CE marking or the estimated sign that notes conformance to EU weights and measures accuracy regulations. Examples of environmental and recycling symbols include the recycling symbol, the [[Recycling codes|recycling code]] (which could be a [[Resin identification code|resin identification code]]), and the [[Green Dot (symbol)|"Green Dot"]]. Food packaging may show [[Chemistry:Food contact materials|food contact material]] symbols. In the [[Social:European Union|European Union]], products of animal origin which are intended to be consumed by humans have to carry standard, oval-shaped EC identification and health marks for food safety and quality insurance reasons.

[[Barcode|Bar codes]], [[Universal Product Code]]s, and [[Radio-frequency identification|RFID]] labels are common to allow automated information management in [[Finance:Logistics|logistics]] and retailing. Country-of-origin labeling is often used. Some products might use [[QR code]]s or similar matrix barcodes. Packaging may have visible [[Printing registration|registration marks]] and other printing calibration and troubleshooting cues.

The labelling of medical devices includes many symbols, many of them covered by international standards, foremost ISO 15223-1.

===Consumer package contents===
Several aspects of consumer package labeling are subject to regulation.  One of the most important is to accurately state the quantity (weight, volume, count) of the package contents.  Consumers expect that the label accurately reflects the actual contents.  Manufacturers and packagers must have effective [[Quality assurance|quality assurance]] procedures and accurate equipment; even so, there is inherent variability in all [[Process capability|processes]].

Regulations attempt to handle both sides of this.  In the US, the Fair Packaging and Labeling Act provides requirements for many types of products.  Also, NIST has Handbook 133, Checking the Net Contents of Packaged Goods.<ref>{{Citation
  | title = Checking the Net Contents of Packaged Goods, Handbook 133 - 2020
  | journal =Nist
| publisher =US National Institute of Science and Technology
| year =2020
  | url = https://www.nist.gov/pml/weights-and-measures/handbook-133-2020-current-version
  | access-date = 8 April 2020
}}</ref>  This is a procedural guide for compliance testing of net contents and is referenced by several other regulatory agencies.<ref> {{cite journal
 | last =Hines
 | first =A
 | title = WEIGHING YOUR OPTIONS WITH NIST HANDBOOK 133
 | journal =Food Safety Net Services News
 | date = February 18, 2019
 | url = https://www.businesscompanion.info/en/quick-guides/weights-and-measures/packaged-goods-average-quantity
 | access-date =8 April 2020
}}</ref>

Other regions and countries have their own regulatory requirements.  For example, the UK has its Weights and Measures (Packaged Goods) Regulations<ref> {{citation
 | title = The Weights and Measures (Packaged Goods) Regulations 2006
 | publisher =UK Statutory Instruments, 2006 No. 659
 | date =2006
 | url = http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2006/659/contents/made
 | access-date =8 April 2020
}}</ref> as well as several other regulations. In the EEA, products with hazardous formulas need to have a UFI.

===Shipping container labeling===
[[File:Print n apply ucc.jpg|left|thumb|"Print & Apply" corner wrap UCC ([[GS1-128|GS1-128]]) label application to a pallet load.]]
Technologies related to shipping containers are identification codes, bar codes, and electronic data interchange (EDI).  These three core technologies serve to enable the business functions in the process of shipping containers throughout the distribution channel.  Each has an essential function: identification codes either relate product information or serve as keys to other data, bar codes allow for the automated input of identification codes and other data, and EDI moves data between trading partners within the distribution channel.

Elements of these core technologies include [[Universal Product Code|UPC]] and [[Organization:GS1|EAN]] item identification codes, the SCC-14 (UPC shipping container code), the SSCC-18 (Serial Shipping Container Codes), Interleaved 2-of-5 and UCC/EAN-128 (newly designated [[GS1-128]]) bar code symbologies, and ANSI ASC X12 and UN/EDIFACT EDI standards.

Small parcel carriers often have their own formats.  For example, [[Company:United Parcel Service|United Parcel Service]] has a [[MaxiCode]] 2-D code for parcel tracking.

[[Radio-frequency identification|RFID]] labels for shipping containers are also increasingly used.  A Wal-Mart division, Sam's Club, has also moved in this direction and is putting pressure on its suppliers to comply.<ref>{{cite news |first=Beth |last=Bacheldor |title=Sam's Club Tells Suppliers to Tag or Pay |url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/3845/1/1/ |date=January 11, 2008 |access-date=January 17, 2008 }}</ref>

Shipments of [[Chemistry:Dangerous goods|hazardous materials]] or [[Chemistry:Dangerous goods|dangerous goods]] have special information and symbols (labels, placards, etc.) as required by UN, country, and specific carrier requirements. On transport packages, standardized symbols are also used to communicate handling needs. Some are defined in the [[Organization:ASTM International|ASTM]] D5445 "Standard Practice for Pictorial Markings for Handling of Goods" and [[Organization:International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 780 "Pictorial marking for handling of goods".
<gallery>
File:Dangclass3.png|Flammable liquid
File:Dangclass1.svg|Explosives
Image:Thiswayup.svg|This way up
File:Fragile symbol.gif|Fragile material
Image:Keepdry.svg|Keep away from [[Chemistry:Water|water]]
</gallery>{{further|List of symbols#Consumer_symbols}}

==Package development considerations==
Package design and development are often thought of as an integral part of the [[Engineering:New product development|new product development]] process.  Alternatively, the development of a package (or component) can be a separate process but must be linked closely with the product to be packaged.
Package design starts with the identification of all the requirements: structural design, [[Finance:Marketing|marketing]], [[Finance:Shelf life|shelf life]], [[Quality assurance|quality assurance]], [[Finance:Logistics|logistics]], legal, regulatory, graphic design, end-use, environmental, etc. The design criteria, performance (specified by [[Engineering:Package testing|package testing]]),  completion time targets, resources, and cost constraints need to be established and agreed upon.  Package design processes often employ [[Social:Rapid prototyping|rapid prototyping]], [[Engineering:Computer-aided design|computer-aided design]], [[Computer-aided manufacturing|computer-aided manufacturing]]  and [[Document automation|document automation]].

[[File:Distribution differences.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Transport packaging needs to be matched to its logistics system. Packages designed for controlled shipments of uniform pallet loads may not be suited to mixed shipments with express carriers.]]

An example of how package design is affected by other factors is its relationship to [[Finance:Logistics|logistics]].  When the distribution system includes individual shipments by a small parcel carrier, the sorting, handling, and mixed stacking make severe demands on the strength and protective ability of the transport package. If the logistics system consists of uniform palletized [[Engineering:Unit load|unit load]]s, the structural design of the package can be designed to meet those specific needs, such as vertical stacking for a longer time frame.  A package designed for one mode of shipment may not be suited to another.

With some types of products, the design process involves detailed regulatory requirements for the packaging.  For example, any package components that may contact foods are designated [[Chemistry:Food contact materials|food contact materials]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sotomayor |first1=Rene E. |last2=Arvidson |first2=Kirk |last3=Mayer |first3=Julie |last4=McDougal |first4=Andrew |last5=Sheu |first5=Chingju |year=2007 |title=Regulatory Report, Assessing the Safety of Food Contact Substances |url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodIngredientsPackaging/FoodContactSubstancesFCS/ucm064166.htm#authors |url-status=dead |journal=Food Safety |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826225458/https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodIngredientsPackaging/FoodContactSubstancesFCS/ucm064166.htm |archive-date=2009-08-26}}</ref>
Toxicologists and food scientists need to verify that such packaging materials are allowed by applicable regulations. Packaging engineers need to verify that the completed package will keep the product safe for its intended [[Finance:Shelf life|shelf life]] with normal usage.  Packaging processes, labeling, distribution, and sale need to be [[Engineering:Verification and validation|validated]] to assure that they comply with regulations that have the well being of the consumer in mind.

Sometimes the objectives of package development seem contradictory.  For example, regulations for an [[Medicine:Over-the-counter drug|over-the-counter drug]] might require the package to be tamper-evident and child resistant:<ref>{{Cite journal
  | last = Rodgers
  | first = G.B.
  | title = The safety effects of child-resistant packaging for oral prescription drugs. Two decades of experience
  | journal = JAMA
  | volume = 275
  | issue = 21
  | pages = 1661–65
  | year = 1996
  | doi = 10.1001/jama.275.21.1661
| pmid=8637140| citeseerx = 10.1.1.507.3265
  }}
</ref> These intentionally make the package difficult to open.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2006 |title=Openability: producing design limits for consumer packaging|journal=Packaging Technology and Science |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=183–243 |doi=10.1002/pts.725 |last1=Yoxall |first1=A. |last2=Janson |first2=R. |last3=Bradbury |first3=S.R. |last4=Langley |first4=J. |last5=Wearn |first5=J. |last6=Hayes |first6=S. |s2cid=110144652}}</ref> The intended consumer, however, might be disabled or elderly and unable to readily open the package. Meeting all goals is a challenge.

Package design may take place within a company or with various degrees of external [[Packaging engineering|packaging engineering]]: [[Finance:Independent contractor|independent contractor]]s, [[Finance:Consultant|consultant]]s, vendor evaluations, independent laboratories, contract packagers, total [[Outsourcing|outsourcing]], etc.  Some sort of formal project planning and [[Project management|project management]] methodology is required for all but the simplest package design and development programs. An effective [[Quality management|quality management]] system and Verification and Validation protocols are mandatory for some types of packaging and recommended for all.

===Environmental considerations===
[[File:Waste hierarchy rect-en.svg|right|thumbnail|300px|The [[Waste hierarchy|waste hierarchy]]]]

Package development involves considerations of [[Earth:Sustainability|sustainability]], environmental responsibility, and applicable [[Social:Environmental policy|environmental]] and [[Physics:Recycling|recycling]] regulations. It may involve a life cycle assessment<ref>{{cite journal |last= Zabaniotou|first=A|author2=Kassidi |year=2003 |title= Life cycle assessment applied to egg packaging made from polystyrene and recycled paper |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=549–559 |doi= 10.1016/S0959-6526(02)00076-8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web
 |last        = Franklin
 |title       = Life Cycle Inventory of Packaging Options for Shipment of Retail Mail-Order Soft Goods
 |date        = April 2004
 |url         = http://www.deq.state.or.us/lq/pubs/docs/sw/packaging/LifeCycleInventory.pdf
 |access-date  = December 13, 2008
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20081217063517/http://www.deq.state.or.us/lq/pubs/docs/sw/packaging/LifeCycleInventory.pdf
 |archive-date = December 17, 2008
 |df          = mdy-all
}}
</ref>
which considers the material and energy inputs and outputs to the package, the packaged product (contents), the packaging process, the [[Finance:Logistics|logistics]] system,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/smartway/transport/documents/faqs/partnership_overview.pdf|title=SmartWay Transport Partnerships|access-date=December 22, 2008|publisher=US Environmental Protection Agency }}</ref> [[Social:Waste management|waste management]], etc.  It is necessary to know the relevant regulatory requirements for point of manufacture, sale, and use.

The traditional "three R's" of reduce, reuse, and recycle are part of a [[Waste hierarchy|waste hierarchy]] which may be considered in product and package development.
* Prevention – Waste prevention is a primary goal.  Packaging should be used only where needed. Proper packaging can also help prevent waste. Packaging plays an important part in preventing loss or damage to the packaged product (contents). Usually, the energy content and material usage of the product being packaged are much greater than that of the package. A vital function of the package is to protect the product for its intended use: if the product is damaged or degraded, its entire energy and material content may be lost.
* Minimization (also "source reduction") – Eliminate overpackaging. The mass and volume of packaging (per unit of contents) can be measured and used as criteria for minimizing the package in the design process. Usually "reduced" packaging also helps minimize costs. Packaging engineers continue to work toward reduced packaging.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wcco.com/topstories/local_story_197233456.html |title=The Incredible Shrinking Package |access-date=July 16, 2007 |last=DeRusha |first=Jason |date=July 16, 2007 |publisher=WCCO |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070717171902/http://wcco.com/topstories/local_story_197233456.html |archive-date=July 17, 2007 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
* Reuse – [[Social:Reusable packaging|Reusable packaging]] is encouraged.<ref>{{Citation
| title =Use Reusables: Fundamentals of Reusable Transport Packaging
| publisher =US Environmental Protection Agency
| year =2012
| url =http://www.epa.gov/wastes/conserve/smm/web-academy/2012/pdfs/smm812_Lehrer.pdf
| access-date =June 30, 2014
| url-status =dead
| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20150114164418/http://www.epa.gov/wastes/conserve/smm/web-academy/2012/pdfs/smm812_Lehrer.pdf
| archive-date =January 14, 2015
| df =mdy-all
}}</ref>  Returnable packaging has long been useful (and economically viable) for closed-loop logistics systems. Inspection, cleaning, repair, and recouperage are often needed. Some manufacturers re-use the packaging of the incoming parts for a product, either as packaging for the outgoing product<ref>[http://www.hpl.hp.com/hpjournal/94feb/feb94a8.pdf "HP DeskJet 1200C Printer Architecture"]. (PDF). Retrieved on June 27, 2012.</ref> or as part of the product itself.<ref>[http://newsroom-magazine.com/2009/critical-thinking/footprints-in-the-sand/ "Footprints In The Sand"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100826072137/http://newsroom-magazine.com/2009/critical-thinking/footprints-in-the-sand/ |date=August 26, 2010 }}. Newsroom-magazine.com. Retrieved on June 27, 2012.</ref>
* Recycling – [[Physics:Recycling|Recycling]] is the reprocessing of materials (pre- and post-consumer) into new products.  Emphasis is focused on recycling the largest primary components of a package: steel, aluminum, papers, plastics, etc. Small components can be chosen which are not difficult to separate and do not contaminate recycling operations. Packages can sometimes be designed to separate components to better facilitate recycling.
* Energy recovery – [[Physics:Waste-to-energy|Waste-to-energy]] and [[Engineering:Refuse-derived fuel|refuse-derived fuel]] in approved facilities make use of the heat available from incinerating the packaging components.
* Disposal – [[Engineering:Incineration|Incineration]], and placement in a sanitary landfill are undertaken for some materials.  Certain US states regulate packages for toxic contents, which have the potential to contaminate emissions and ash from incineration and [[Earth:Leachate|leachate]] from landfill. Packages should not be littered.

Development of [[Social:Sustainable packaging|sustainable packaging]] is an area of considerable interest to [[Engineering:Standards organization|standards organization]]s, governments, consumers, packagers, and retailers.

Sustainability is the fastest-growing driver for packaging development, particularly for packaging manufacturers that work with the world's leading brands, as their CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) targets often exceed those of the EU Directive.

==Packaging machinery==
{{main|Packaging machinery}}
[[File:Budweiser Plant.jpg|right|thumbnail|400px|Beer [[Engineering:Bottling line|bottling line]]s]]
Choosing packaging machinery includes an assessment of technical capabilities, labor requirements, worker safety, [[Maintainability|maintainability]], serviceability, [[Reliability engineering|reliability]], ability to integrate into the packaging line, capital cost, floorspace, flexibility (change-over, materials, multiple products, etc.), energy requirements, [[Quality control|quality]] of outgoing packages, qualifications (for food, pharmaceuticals, etc.), throughput, efficiency, productivity, ergonomics, [[Finance:Return on investment|return on investment]], etc.

Packaging machinery can be:
# purchased as standard, off-the-shelf equipment
# purchased custom-made or custom-tailored to specific operations
# manufactured or modified by in-house engineers and maintenance staff

Efforts at packaging line [[Engineering:Automation|automation]] increasingly use [[Programmable logic controller|programmable logic controller]]s and robotics.

Packaging machines may be of the following general types:
* Accumulating and collating machines
* Blister packs, skin packs and vacuum packaging machines
* Bottle caps equipment, over-capping, lidding, closing, seaming and sealing machines
* [[Engineering:Box|Box]], case, tray, and carrier forming, packing, unpacking, closing, and sealing machines
* Cartoning machines
* Cleaning, sterilizing, cooling and drying machines
* Coding, printing, marking, stamping, and imprinting machines
* Converting machines
* [[Engineering:Conveyor belt|Conveyor belt]]s, accumulating and related machines
* Feeding, orienting, placing and related machines
* Filling machines: handling dry, powdered, solid, liquid, gas, or viscous products
* Inspecting: visual, sound, metal detecting, etc.
* [[Engineering:Label dispenser|Label dispenser]]
* Orienting, unscrambling machines
* Package filling and closing machines
* [[Engineering:Pallet|Pallet]]izing, depalletizing, [[Engineering:Unit load|unit load]] assembly
* Product identification: labeling, marking, etc.
* Sealing machines: heat sealer or glue units
* Slitting machines
* Weighing machines: [[Check weigher|check weigher]], [[Engineering:Multihead weigher|multihead weigher]]
* Wrapping machines: stretch wrapping, shrink wrap, banding
* [[Engineering:Vertical form fill sealing machine|Form, fill and seal machines]]
* Other specialty machinery: slitters, perforating, [[Physics:Laser|laser]] cutters, parts attachment, etc.

<gallery mode="packed">
Image:SSF Costco bakery pastry packaging line.JPG|Bakery goods shrinkwrapped by shrink film, heat sealer and heat tunnel on roller [[Engineering:Lineshaft roller conveyor|conveyor]]
Image:Auto Sorting Packages.jpg|High speed conveyor with stationary bar code scanner for sorting
Image:4051 lpa.jpg|[[Label printer]] applicator applying a label to adjacent panels of a corrugated box.
Image:Factory Automation Robotics Palettizing Bread.jpg|Robots used to palletize bread
Image:Stretch wrapping machine.jpg|Automatic stretch wrapping machine
File:Molding packaging from straw, k9837-1.jpg|Equipment used for making molded pulp components and molding packaging from [[Biology:Straw|straw]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last = Wood|first = Marcia|title = Leftover Straw Gets New Life|journal = Agricultural Research|date=April 2002|url = http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/apr02/straw0402.htm}}</ref>
Image:Rotary Arm Freedom 6500.jpg|A semi-automatic rotary arm stretch wrapper
File:Jsc2008e038873 SFSL Lab Pack Room.jpg|Equipment for thermoforming packages at NASA
File:Pol Roger labelling line 2.jpg|Automated labeling line for wine bottles
File:Shrink-wrapping_machine_by_OCME_S.r.L.jpg|Shrink film wrap being applied on PET bottles
File:Laboratoires Arkopharma - Chaine de conditionnement remplissage piluliers.JPG|Pharmaceutical packaging line
File:Remplisseuse bag in box.JPG|Filling machinery for [[Engineering:Bag-in-box|bag-in-box]]
</gallery>

==See also==
* Brazilian packaging market
* [[Document automation]]
* In-mould labelling
* [[Packing problems]]
* Package cushioning
* Polypropylene raffia
* Resealable packaging
* [[Engineering:Gift wrapping|Gift wrapping]]
* Zero-waste lifestyle

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Calver, G., ''What Is Packaging Design'', Rotovision. 2004, {{ISBN|2-88046-618-0}}.
* Dean, D.A., 'Pharmaceutical Packaging Technology", 2000, {{ISBN|0-7484-0440-6}}
* Meisner, "Transport Packaging", Third Edition, IoPP, 2016
* Morris, S.A., "Food and Package Engineering", 2011, {{ISBN|978-0-8138-1479-7}}
* Pilchik, R., "Validating Medical Packaging" 2002, {{ISBN|1-56676-807-1}}
* Robertson, G.L., "Food Packaging: Principles and Practice", 3rd edition, 2013, {{ISBN|978-1-4398-6241-4}}
* Selke, S., "Plastics Packaging", 2004, {{ISBN|1-56990-372-7}}
* Tweede, Selke, Cartons, Crates And Corrugated Board: Handbook of Paper And Wood Packaging Technology, Destech  Pub ,2014, 2nd edition,

==External links==

{{Packaging}}
{{Labeling}}

[[Category:Product management]]

{{Sourceattribution|Packaging}}