View source for Social:Mixe–Zoque languages

{{Short description|Language family of Mexico}}
{{Infobox language family
  |name=Mixe–Zoque
  |altname=Mije–Soke
  |region= [[Place:Mesoamerica|Mesoamerica]]: Mexico Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tabasco, Veracruz
  |familycolor=American
  |fam1= [[Social:Totozoquean languages|Totozoquean]] ?
  |glotto=mixe1284
  |glottorefname=Mixe–Zoque
  |protoname=[[Social:Proto-Mixe–Zoquean|Proto-Mixe–Zoquean]]
  |child1=Mixean
  |child2=Zoquean (Olmeci?) 
  |map=Mixezoquemap.png
  |mapcaption=Locations where the Mixe–Zoque languages are spoken:  Mixe (red) and Zoque (green)
}}

The '''Mixe–Zoque''' {{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|iː|h|eɪ|ˈ|s|oʊ|k|eɪ}}<ref>{{OED|Zoque-Mixe}}</ref> (also '''Mixe–Zoquean''', '''Mije–Soke''', '''Mije–Sokean''') languages are a [[Social:Language family|language family]] whose living members are spoken in and around the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico. The Mexican government recognizes three distinct Mixe–Zoquean languages as official: Mixe or ''ayook'' with 188,000 speakers, Zoque  or ''o'de püt'' with 88,000 speakers, and the Popoluca languages of which some are Mixean and some Zoquean with 69,000 speakers. However, the internal diversity in each of these groups is great. [[Social:Glottolog|Glottolog]] counts 19 different languages, whereas the current classification of Mixe–Zoquean languages by [[Biography:Søren Wichmann|Wichmann]] (1995) counts 12 languages and 11 dialects. Extinct languages classified as Mixe–Zoquean include Tapachultec, formerly spoken in Tapachula, along the southeast coast of Chiapas.

==History==
Historically the Mixe–Zoquean family may have been much more widespread, reaching into the Soconusco region and the Guatemalan Pacific coast.<ref>Campbell, Lyle, et al. The linguistics of Southeast Chiapas, Mexico. United States, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, 1988. pg. 309</ref> It has been hypothesized that Mixean speakers were present, and perhaps represented ruling classes, at the preclassic sites of Kaminaljuyu, Takalik Abaj, and Izapa.<ref>Marín, David Mora. "Differential Mixean and Zoquean Interaction with the Greater Lowland Mayan Languages and the Late Preclassic Origins of Classic Mayan Scribal Practices."
</ref>

Terrence Kaufman and Lyle Campbell have argued, based on a number of widespread loanwords in other [[Social:Mesoamerican languages|Mesoamerican languages]], that it is likely that the Olmec people, generally seen as the earliest dominating culture of [[Place:Mesoamerica|Mesoamerica]], spoke a Mixe–Zoquean language.<ref>Campbell and Kaufman (1976).</ref>  Kaufman and John Justeson also claim to have deciphered a substantial part of the text written in Isthmian script (called also by them and some others 'Epi-Olmec') which appears on La Mojarra Stela 1, based upon their deciphering of the text as representing an archaic Mixe–Zoquean language.

Both of these claims have been criticized: Michael D. Coe and David Stuart argue that the surviving corpus of the few known examples of Isthmian inscriptions is insufficient to securely ground any proposed decipherment. Their attempt to apply Kaufman's and Justeson's decipherments to other extant Isthmian material failed to produce any meaningful results. Wichmann (1995) criticizes certain proposed Mixe–Zoquean loans into other Mesoamerican languages as being only Zoquean, not Mixean, which would put the period of borrowing much later than the [[Social:Proto-Mixe–Zoquean language|Proto-Mixe–Zoquean]] time-frame in which the Olmec culture was at its height. The date of the Mixe–Zoque split has however since been pushed back, and the argument is therefore much weaker than it once was thought to be.<ref name="Wichmann, Beliaev 2008">Wichmann, Beliaev & Davletshin, in press (Sept 2008).</ref>

Later, Kaufman (2001), again on the basis of putative loans from Mixe–Zoque into other Mesoamerican languages, argued a Mixe–Zoquean presence at [[Astronomy:Teotihuacan|Teotihuacan]], and he ascribed to Mixe–Zoquean an important role in spreading a number of the linguistic features that later became some of the principal commonalities used in defining the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area.

The so-called "{{ill|Zuyuá language|es|Idioma de Zuyuá|lt=language of Zuyua}}", which was used by some of the nobility and priesthood of the postclassic Yucatan region, may have been a Mixean language.<ref>Stross, Brian. the language of Zuyua. University of Texas, Austin, February 1983.</ref>

===Genetic relations with other families===

The Mixe–Zoque languages have been included in several long-range classification proposals, e.g. in Edward Sapir's "Mexican Penutian" branch of his proposed [[Social:Penutian languages|Penutian]] linguistic superfamily, {{sfn|Sapir|1929}} or as part of the [[Social:Macro-Mayan languages|Macro-Mayan]] proposal by Norman McQuown which groups together the Mixe–Zoque languages with the [[Social:Mayan languages|Mayan languages]] and the [[Social:Totonacan languages|Totonacan languages]].{{sfn|McQuown|1942}} At the end of the last century, Lyle Campbell dismissed most earlier comparisons as methodologically flawed, but considered the Macro-Mayan proposal the most promising, but yet unproven hypothesis.{{sfn|Campbell|1997|p=323–324}} In two more recently published articles, evidence is presented for linking the Mixe–Zoque languages either with the [[Social:Totonacan languages|Totonacan languages]] ("[[Social:Totozoquean languages|Totozoquean]]"),{{sfn|Brown|Beck|Kondrak|Watters|2011}} or with the [[Social:Mayan languages|Mayan languages]].{{sfn|Mora-Marín|2016}}

==Classification==

===Wichmann (1995)===
The following internal classification of the Mixe–Zoquean languages is by [[Biography:Søren Wichmann|Søren Wichmann]] (1995).

[[Image:Mixezoqueantree.png|right|400px|thumb|Mixe–Zoquean classification by [[Biography:Søren Wichmann|Søren Wichmann]] (1995)]]

{{tree list}}
*'''Proto-Mixe-Zoquean'''
**Proto-Mixean
***Tapachultec
***Sayula Popoluca (Sayultec)
***Oluta Popoluca (Olutec)
***Proto-Oaxaca Mixean
****North Highland Mixe
****South Highland Mixe
****Midland Mixe, Lowland Mixe
**Proto-Zoquean
***Proto-Gulf Zoquean
***Chimalapa Zoque
***Chiapas Zoque
{{tree list/end}}

===Kaufman & Justeson (2000)===
The following internal classification of the Mixe–Zoquean languages is by Kaufman & Justeson (2000), cited in Zavala (2000).<ref name="Zavala2000">Zavala Maldonado, Roberto. 2000. ''Inversion and other topics in the grammar of Olutec (Mixe)''. Ph.D. Dissertation: University of Oregon.</ref> Individual languages are marked by ''italics''.

{{tree list}}
*'''Mixe-Zoque'''
**Mixe
***''Tapachultec''
***''Olutec''
***Mixe Proper
****''Sayultec''
****(branch)
*****''Lowland Mixe''
*****''Highland Mixe''
**Zoque
***Gulf Zoquean
****''Soteapan Zoque (Sierra Popoluca)''
****(branch)
*****''Texistepec Zoque''
*****''Ayapanec Zoque''
***Zoque
****''Chiapas Zoque''
****''Oaxaca Zoque''
{{tree list/end}}

Justeson and Kaufman also classify the language represented in the Epi-Olmec script as an early Zoquean language.<ref>Justeson, John S., and Terrence Kaufman (1993), "A Decipherment of Epi-Olmec Hieroglyphic Writing" in ''Science'', Vol. 259, 19 March 1993, pp.&nbsp;1703–11.</ref><ref>Justeson, John S., and Terrence Kaufman (1997) [http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/justeson.dtl "A Newly Discovered Column in the Hieroglyphic Text on La Mojarra Stela 1: a Test of the Epi-Olmec Decipherment"], ''Science'', Vol. 277, 11 July 1997, pp.&nbsp;207–10.</ref><ref>Justeson, John S., and Terrence Kaufman (2001) [http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/EOTEXTS.pdf ''Epi-Olmec Hieroglyphic Writing and Texts''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525014933/http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/EOTEXTS.pdf |date=2011-05-25 }}.</ref>

==Phonology==

The phoneme inventory of [[Social:Proto-Mixe–Zoquean|Proto-Mixe–Zoquean]] as reconstructed by Wichmann (1995) can be seen to be relatively simple, but many of the modern languages have been innovative; some have become quite vowel rich, and some also have introduced a fortis–lenis contrast in the stop series. Although the lateral phoneme {{IPA|/l/}} is found in a few words in some of the languages, these are probably of onomatopoeic origin.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! Close
|{{IPA|*i}}&nbsp;{{IPA|*iː}}
|{{IPA|*ɨ}}&nbsp;{{IPA|*ɨː}}
|{{IPA|*u}}&nbsp;{{IPA|*uː}}
|- 
! Mid
|{{IPA|*e}}&nbsp;{{IPA|*eː}}
|
|{{IPA|*o}}&nbsp;{{IPA|*oː}}
|- align=center
! Open
|
|{{IPA|*a}}&nbsp;{{IPA|*aː}}
|
|}
{{IPA|*ɨ}}&nbsp;{{IPA|*ɨː}} has also been reconstructed {{IPA|*ə}}&nbsp;{{IPA|*əː}}.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
!
!Bilabial
!Alveolar
!Alveolo-palatal
!Velar
!Glottal
|-
!Stop
|{{IPA|*p}}
|{{IPA|*t}}
|{{IPA|*t͡s}}
|{{IPA|*k}}
|{{IPA|*ʔ}}
|-
! Fricative
|
|{{IPA|*s}}
|
|
|{{IPA|*h}}
|-
! Nasal
|{{IPA|*m}}
|{{IPA|*n}}
|
|
|
|-
!Approximant
|{{IPA|*w}}
|
|{{IPA|*j}}
|
|
|}

===Syllables===
Mixe–Zoquean languages are characterized by complex syllabic nuclei made up of combinations of vowels together with the glottal stop and {{IPA|/h/}} in the proto-language. Complex syllable-final consonant clusters are also typical in the daughter languages and can be reconstructed for the proto-language.

Proto-Mixe–Zoquean syllable nuclei could be either:
:V – short vowel
:V' – short vowel with glottal stop
:VV – long vowel
:V'V – long vowel with medial glottal stop
:VV' – long vowel with final glottal stop
:Vh – short vowel with h

==Grammatical features==

The Mixe–Zoquean languages are head-marking and polysynthetic, with morphologically complex verbs and simple nouns. Grammatical subjects as well as objects are marked in the verb. Ergative alignment is used, as well as direct–inverse systems triggered by animacy and topicality. In Mixe–Zoquean verbs, a morphological distinction is made between two basic [[Social:Clause|clause]]-types, independent and dependent; verbs take different aspectual and personal affixes, depending on the type of clause in which they appear. There are two different sets of aspect-markers, one used in dependent clauses and another used in independent clauses. Three aspects are distinguished within each clause-type: incompletive, completive, and irrealis.

==Ethnologue classification and SIL ISO-codes==
[[Social:Ethnologue|Ethnologue]] still uses the earlier pre-Wichmann classification, based on surveys of [[Social:Mutual intelligibility|mutual intelligibility]] and comparative work by William Wonderly, as a basis for their work. This classification is not used by historical linguists, and Lyle Campbell's authoritative 1997 presentation uses Wichmann's classification.

#Mixe languages — an estimated 90,000 native speakers
#*Eastern Mixe — An estimated 72,000 native speakers
#:Dialects: [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=mco Coatlán] (mco), [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=mir Istmo] (mir), [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pxm Quetzaltepec] (pxm), [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=zoq Juquila] (mxq), [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=zoq Mazatlán] (mzl)
#*Veracruz Mixe — An estimated 4,000 native speakers
#:Dialects: [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=plo Oluta] (plo) nearly extinct – only 100 speakers, [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pos Sayula] (pos)
#*Western Mixe
#:An estimated 10,000 native speakers
#:Dialects: [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=mto Totontepec] (mto), [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=mxp Tlahuitoltepec] (mxp)
#Zoque languages — an estimated 60,000 native speakers
#*Chiapas Zoque — An estimated 22,000 native speakers
#:Dialects: [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=zoq Copainalá] (zoc), [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=zor Rayón] (zor), [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=zos Francisco León] (zos)
#*Oaxaca Zoque – An estimated 4,500 native speakers
#:Dialect: [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=zoh Chimalapa] (zoh)
#*Veracruz Zoque — An estimated 30,000 native speakers
#:Dialects: [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=poi Highland] (poi),  [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=poq Texistepec] (poq) nearly extinct – only 450 speakers, [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=zoq Tabasco] (zoq) nearly extinct – only 40 speakers

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |year=2011 |last1=Brown |first1=Cecil H. |last2=Beck |first2=David |last3=Kondrak |first3=Grzegorz |last4=Watters |first4=James K. |last5=Wichmann |first5=S.  |title=Totozoquean |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=323–372 |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |jstor=10.1086/660972|doi=10.1086/660972 |s2cid=224807468 }}
* {{cite book |year=1997 |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=American Indian Languages |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* Campbell, L., and T. Kaufman (1976), "A Linguistic Look at the Olmecs", ''American Antiquity'', 41 pp.&nbsp;80–89.
* Justeson, John S., and Kaufman, Terrence, (1997),[http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/justeson.dtl "A Newly Discovered Column in the Hieroglyphic Text on La Mojarra Stela 1: a Test of the Epi-Olmec Decipherment"], ''Science'', 07/11/97, Vol. 277 Issue 5323, p.&nbsp;207.
* Justeson, John S., and Kaufman, Terrence (2001) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110525014933/http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/EOTEXTS.pdf ''Epi-Olmec Hieroglyphic Writing and Texts''].
* Kaufman, Terrence, (2001) Nawa linguistic prehistory, published at [http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/papers.htm website of the Mesoamerican Language Documentation Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175905/http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/papers.htm |date=2016-03-03 }}
* {{cite book |year=1942 |last=McQuown |first=Norman |chapter=Una posible síntesis lingüística Macro-Mayance |title=Mayas y Olmecas |volume=2 |pages=37–38 |location=México |publisher=Sociedad Mexicana de Antropología}}
* {{cite journal |year=2016 |last=Mora-Marín |first=David F. |title=Testing the Proto-Mayan-Mije-Sokean hypothesis |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=125–180 |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |doi=10.1086/685900|s2cid=147269181 }}
* {{cite book |year=1929 |last=Sapir |first=Edward |chapter=Central and North American languages |title=Encyclopaedia Britannica |edition=14th |volume=5 |pages=138–141}}
* {{cite book |author=Wichmann, Søren |year=1995 |title=The Relationship Among the Mixe–Zoquean Languages of Mexico |publisher=University of Utah Press |location=Salt Lake City |isbn=978-0-87480-487-4}}
* {{cite book |author=Wichmann, Søren |year=1998 |chapter=A conservative look at diffusion involving Mixe–Zoquean languages |title=Archaeology and Language, vol. II: Correlating archaeological and linguistic hypotheses |series=One World Archaeology series, no. 29 |editor=Roger Blench |editor2=Matthew Spriggs|location=London and New York |publisher=[[Company:Routledge|Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-11761-6 |oclc=35673530}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040202232712/http://byunews.byu.edu/release.aspx?story=archive04%2FJan%2FIsthmian Brigham Young University press release]  on behalf of Brigham Young University archaeologist Stephen Houston and Yale University professor emeritus Michael Coe disputing Justeson/Kaufman findings.
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.native-languages.org/fammix.htm Mixe–Zoque language family]

{{Mixe-Zoque languages}}
{{Mesoamerican families}}
{{Language families}}
{{North American languages}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mixe-Zoque Languages}}
[[Category:Language families]]

{{Sourceattribution|Mixe–Zoque languages}}