View source for Social:Doctor (title)

{{Short description|Academic title for a holder of a doctoral degree}}
[[File:Catharine Bond Hill graduation 2008.jpg|thumb|Former [[Organization:Vassar College|Vassar College]] president Catharine Bond Hill wearing doctoral robes. She has a doctorate and can thus carry the title of "Doctor".]]
'''Doctor''' is an [[Social:Academic degree|academic title]] that originates from the Latin word of the same spelling and meaning.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/wordz.pl?keyword=Doctor | title=William Whitaker's Words – Doctor | author=William Whitaker | publisher=University of Notre Dame | access-date=21 April 2011}}</ref> The word is originally an agentive noun of the Latin verb {{lang|la|docēre}} {{IPA-la|dɔˈkeːrɛ|}} 'to teach'. It has been used as an academic title in Europe since the 13th century, when the first [[Social:Doctorate|doctorate]]s were awarded at the [[Organization:University of Bologna|University of Bologna]] and the [[Organization:University of Paris|University of Paris]].

Having become established in European universities, this usage spread around the world. Contracted "Dr" or "Dr.", it is used as a designation for a person who has obtained a doctorate (commonly a [[Social:Doctor of Philosophy|PhD/DPhil]]). In past usage, the term could be applied to any learned person.  In many parts of the world today it is also used by medical practitioners, regardless of whether they hold a doctoral-level [[Social:Academic degree|degree]].

==Origins==
[[File:Ancient Greek Marble Consecration Relief to a Heroic Doctor, c. 50 BC to 50 AD (28661031841).jpg|thumb|right|An Ancient Greek Marble Consecration Relief to a Heroic Doctor]] 
The doctorate ({{lang-la|doceō|lit=I teach}}) appeared in [[History:Middle Ages|medieval Europe]] as a license to teach ({{lang-la|licentia docendi|links=no}}) at a medieval university.<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Doctor, doctoratus">{{cite journal | last=Verger | first=J. | title=Doctor, doctoratus | journal=[[History:Lexikon des Mittelalters|Lexikon des Mittelalters]] | volume=3 | pages=1155–1156 | year=1999}}</ref> Its roots can be traced to the early church, when the term "doctor" referred to the [[Religion:Apostles in the New Testament|Apostles]], church fathers and other [[Religion:Christianity|Christian]] authorities who taught and interpreted the [[Religion:Bible|Bible]].<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Doctor, doctoratus"/> The right to grant a ''licentia docendi'' was originally reserved to the church which required the applicant to pass a test, take an Oath of allegiance and pay a fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access — now largely free of charge — of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic.<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Licentia">{{cite journal | last=Verger | first=J. | title=Licentia | journal=[[History:Lexikon des Mittelalters|Lexikon des Mittelalters]] | volume=5 | pages=1957–1958 | year=1999}}</ref> This right remained a bone of contention between church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the [[Religion:Pope|pope]] to the [[Organization:University of Paris|University of Paris]] in 1213, when it became a universal license to teach (''licentia ubiquie docendi'').<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Licentia"/> However, while the licentia continued to hold more prestige than the bachelor's degree (''Baccalaureus''), it was eventually positioned below the Magister and the [[Social:Doctorate|doctorate]], which became the only titles with which one could teach.<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Licentia"/>

The earliest doctoral degrees — in theology, law, and medicine — reflected the historical separation of university study into these three fields. Over time, the [[Social:Doctor of Divinity|Doctor of Divinity]] has become less common, whereas studies in law and medicine have become more common. These areas were historically referred to as "philosophy" (used as a general term for academic studies, not the specific academic discipline of philosophy), but are now classified as [[Social:Humanities|humanities]] and [[Science|science]]s, respectively. The historical usage survives in the degree of [[Social:Doctor of Philosophy|Doctor of Philosophy]]).

The Doctor of Philosophy was originally a [[Social:Academic degree|degree]] granted by a [[Organization:University|university]] to learned individuals who had achieved the approval of their peers and who had demonstrated a long and productive career in the field of philosophy (in the broad sense of the term, meaning the pursuit of knowledge). The appellation "Doctor" (from Latin: teacher) was usually awarded only when the individual was in middle age. It indicated a life dedicated to learning, knowledge, and the spread of knowledge. The PhD entered widespread use in the 19th century at Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin as a degree to be granted to someone who had undertaken original research in the sciences or humanities. Prior to the formal degree, the contemporary doctorate (PhD), arguably, arose in Leipzig as a successor to the Master's degree in 1652 (Dr. habil).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://erhard-weigel-gesellschaft.de.dedi2970.your-server.de/biographie-weigels/ |title=Erhard-Weigel-Gesellschaft: Biographie Weigels |access-date=2016-10-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114124147/http://erhard-weigel-gesellschaft.de.dedi2970.your-server.de/biographie-weigels/ |archive-date=14 November 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

In some European countries, such as Italy and Portugal, "Doctor" became a title given to all or most degree holders, not just those with doctorates.<ref>{{cite book|title=Using Portuguese: A Guide to Contemporary Usage|author1= Ana Sofia Ganho|author2=Timothy McGovern|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eGCq9t6DQf8C&pg=PA24|page=24|publisher={{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}|date=18 March 2004|isbn= 9781139449380}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.quadrodeititoli.it/Index.aspx?IDL=2|title=Italian Qualification Framework for the Higher Education|access-date=14 December 2016|publisher=Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Università e della Ricerca}}</ref>
As a result, the title is now used by many professionals in these countries, including those such as lawyers who are not normally granted the title elsewhere.<ref>Portugal: [http://www.martindale.com/Alves-Pereira-Teixeira-de-Sousa/1996365-law-firm-2982267-people.htm Alves Periera Teixeira de Sousa]. Accessed 16 February 2009;</ref><ref>Italy [http://www.hierosgamos.org/hg/db_lawfirms.asp?action=page&pcomp=35487 Studio Misuraca, Franceschin and Associates] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090804100209/http://www.hierosgamos.org/hg/db_lawfirms.asp?action=page&pcomp=35487 |date=4 August 2009 }}. Accessed 16 February 2009.</ref> The title is also used for lawyers in South America, where they have traditionally earned doctoral degrees,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AnlHAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA571|quote=it is the custom of institutions of higher learning in most of the states of South America to confer the title of doctor upon lawyers as well as upon physicians|title=The American Review of Reviews, Volume 37|date=1908|page=571|last1=Shaw|first1=Albert}}</ref><ref>: [http://www.ehernandez.com.pe/home.html Hernandez & Cia] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090331041426/http://www.ehernandez.com.pe/home.html |date=31 March 2009 }}. Accessed 16 February 2009;</ref><ref>Brazil: [http://www.abdo.com.br/site/home.htm Abdo & Diniz] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221173244/http://www.abdo.com.br/site/home.htm |date=21 February 2009 }}. Accessed 16 February 2009 (see Spanish or Portuguese profile pages);</ref><ref>Argentina: [http://www.lmpabogados.com.ar/sitio/site/template.asp?bod=2&lang=en Lareo & Paz]. Accessed 16 February 2009.</ref> as well as in the former Portuguese territories of Goa in India and [[Place:Macau|Macau]] in China.<ref>Macau: [http://www.informac.gov.mo/aam/queries/pgetalladv.idc? Macau Lawyers Association]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309060707/http://www.informac.gov.mo/aam/queries/pgetalladv.idc |date=9 March 2009 }}. Accessed 16 February 2009</ref>

===Development in English-speaking countries===

The primary meaning of ''Doctor'' in English has historically been with reference to the holder of a doctoral degree.<ref name=Johnson1>{{cite web|url=http://johnsonsdictionaryonline.com/?p=5858|title=Dóctor. n.s. [doctor, Latin.]|work=Johnson's Dictionary Online|date=1755}}</ref> These particularly referred to the ancient faculties of divinity, law and medicine, sometimes with the addition of music, which were the only doctoral degrees offered until the 19th century. During the 19th century, PhDs became increasingly common in Britain, although to obtain the degree it was necessary to travel to continental Europe or (from 1861) to the United States, as the degree was not awarded in the UK until 1917.

However, the title, not being protected by law, was adopted by [[Philosophy:Quackery|quacks]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/monthylygazette00mdgoog|title=Prince Hohenlohe|pages=[https://archive.org/details/monthylygazette00mdgoog/page/n376 740]–742|work=Monthly Gazette of Health|date=December 1823|last1=Richard Reece|first1=M.D}}</ref> As a result, by the mid 19th century, it was normal in the UK to omit the title "Dr" when addressing letters to those holding doctoral degrees, and instead write the abbreviated form of the degree after the name, e.g., "The Reverend Robert Phelps, D.D.", "Thomas Elliotson, Esq. M.D.", or "John Lindsey, Esq. Ph.D.", in order to avoid classing academic doctors "with the village apothecary and the farrier" and various "quacks in literature, science, or art".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dexhAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA124|title=Court Etiquette|date=1849|pages=124–125|author=Charles Mitchell}}</ref> In the US it similarly became customary to use post-nominals rather than the title of Doctor when addressing letters.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YDdAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA268|pages=268–269|title=A Manual of Composition and Rhetoric: A Text-book for Schools and Colleges|author=John Seely Hart|publisher=Eldredge & Brother|date=1871}}</ref> All those with doctoral degrees continued to use the title professionally and socially.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nqkPAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170|pages=170–172|title=Hand-Book of Official and Social Etiquette and Public Ceremonials at Washington|author=De Benneville Randolph Keim|date=1889|publisher=Рипол Классик |isbn=9785876615459}}</ref>

Despite being historically associated with doctorates in law, the title of ''doctor'' for lawyers has not customarily been used in English-speaking countries, where lawyers were traditionally not required to have a university degree and were trained by other lawyers by apprenticeship or in the Inns of Court.<ref>Stein, R. (1981). [http://digitalcommons.pace.edu/lawfaculty/228/ The Path of Legal Education from Edward to Langdell: A History of Insular Reaction], Pace University School of Law Faculty Publications, 1981, 57 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 429, pp. 430, 432, 434, 436</ref> The exception being those areas where, up to the 19th century, civil law rather than common law was the governing tradition, including admiralty law, probate and ecclesiastical law: such cases were heard in the Doctor's Commons, and argued by advocates who held degrees either of doctor of civil law at Oxford or doctor of law at Cambridge. As such, lawyers practicing common law in England were not doctoral candidates and had not earned a doctorate. When university degrees became more common for those wanting to qualify as a lawyer in England, the degree awarded was the [[Social:Bachelor of Laws|Bachelor of Laws]] (LLB). Similarly in the US, even though degrees became standard for lawyers much earlier, the degree was again the LLB, only becoming the [[Social:Juris Doctor|Juris Doctor]] (JD) generally in the latter half of the 20th century.

In many English-speaking countries, it is common to refer to physicians by the title of doctor, even when they do not hold a doctoral level qualification. The word ''Doctor'' has long had a secondary meaning in English of [[Medicine:Physician|physician]], e.g., in Johnson's Dictionary, which quotes its use with this meaning by Shakespeare.<ref name=Johnson1/> In the US, the medical societies established the proprietary medical colleges in the 19th century to award their own MDs,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001936.htm|title=Doctor of medicine profession|work=US National Library of Medicine|access-date=26 November 2016}}</ref> but in the UK and the British Empire, where degree granting was strictly controlled, this was not an option. The usage of the title to refer to medical practitioners, even when they didn't hold doctoral degrees, was common by the mid 18th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyextra.com/qa/doctor-doctor|title= When did medical practitioners start to be called 'doctor'?|author= William Byrnum|publisher=Immediate Media Company|website=History Extra|date=28 June 2013|access-date=19 December 2016}}</ref> However, the first official recognition of Doctor being applied as a title to medical practitioners regardless of whether they held a doctoral degree was in 1838, when the Royal College of Physicians resolved that it would "regard in the same light, and address by the same appellation, all who have obtained its diploma, whether they have graduated elsewhere or not."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IBECAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA958|title=Royal College of Physicians of London|date=22 December 1838|author=Francis Hawkins|work=London Medical Gazette|page=958|author-link=Francis Bisset Hawkins}}</ref><ref name=RCPHistory>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQEpAQAAMAAJ&q=%22and+address+by+%22|title=A History of the Royal College of Physicians of London|page=962|volume=3|publisher=Clarendon Press|author1=Sir George Norman Clark|author2=A. M. Cooke|date=1964|isbn=9788291016375|quote=In December 1838 a resolution had been passed that 'The College is prepared to regard in the same light, and address by the same appellation, all who have obtained its Diploma, whether they have graduated elsewhere or not', in other words, that all in the College without degrees were to be given the courtesy title of "Doctor". In 1859 the College changed its mind and resolved 'That the title of Doctor shall not be given in any official document issued from this College to any person who is not possessed of the Degree of Doctor of Medicine"}}</ref>

The Medical Act 1858 made it illegal for anyone not qualified in medicine to use a title that implied they were. This led to prosecutions of people making unauthorised use of the title "Dr".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=axgCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA274|title=Conviction under the New Medical Act|date=10 September 1869|work=The Medical Times and Gazette|volume=19|page=274}}</ref> However, it also called into question the use of the title by licentiates of the Colleges of Physicians – all of whom were, under the new act, allowed to practice throughout the UK. In 1859, the London College reversed its earlier decision, resolving "That the title of Doctor shall not be given in any official document issued from this College to any person who is not possessed of the Degree of Doctor of Medicine".<ref name=RCPHistory/> This was followed up in 1860 by new bylaws that stated "No Fellow, Member, or Licentiate of the College shall assume the title of Doctor of Medicine, or use any other name, title, designation or distinction implying that he is a Graduate in Medicine of an University, unless he be a Graduate in Medicine of an University".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zZkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA640|page=640|date=29 December 1860|work=Medical Times and Gazette|title=The Royal College of Physicians of London}}</ref> In Ireland, the question of whether the license of the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland granted the title of Doctor of Medicine led to a court case in 1861, with the conclusion that it did not.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzJbAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA642|work=Medical Times and Gazette|page=642|title=The Queen v. The Medical Council in Ireland|date=5 June 1861}}</ref> The ''British Medical Journal'' (''BMJ'') observed, however, that anyone wanting the right to the title of "Doctor" could gain it "with a five-shilling degree of Doctor of Philosophy" from abroad, or could simply assume the title, as only "Doctor of Medicine" was actually protected.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=25199076|journal=BMJ|pages=259–260|date=6 September 1862|title=The Title of Doctor|volume=2|issue=88|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.88.258|s2cid=220168703}}</ref> Debate continued as to the use of "Doctor" as a courtesy title by those who did not use it by right as holders of doctoral degrees, with the ''BMJ'' noting in 1876 that "We have again a sort of flood of letters for and against the use of the title of Doctor by physicians" and in 1882 that "There is not any other subject which appears to excite so wide spread an interest as this".<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=25242782|journal=BMJ|date=12 February 1876|title=The Title of Doctor|volume=1|issue=789|pages=200–202|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.789.201|s2cid=220228347}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|jstor=25260188|journal=BMJ|date=22 July 1882|title=The Title of Doctor|volume=2|issue=1125|pages=158–160|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.1125.158|s2cid=220190165}}</ref> In February 1876, a report recommended that the Royal College of Physicians should use the courtesy title of Doctor for all fellows and members, but this was rejected.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=25242757|journal=BMJ|date=5 February 1876|title=The Title of Doctor and the London College of Physicians|volume=1|issue=788|pages=177|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.788.171|s2cid=220238134}}</ref> Then in April of the same year, the college amended its bylaws to forbid any fellow, member, extra-licentiate or licentiate from using the title of Doctor unless they had a doctorate in medicine from a recognised university – closing the loophole the ''BMJ'' had identified.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=25236946|journal=BMJ|date=15 April 1876|title=Royal College of Physicians of London|volume=1|issue=798|pages=485|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.798.480|s2cid=220140308}}</ref> It was not until the early 20th century that this was reversed. In 1905 the Royal College of Surgeons passed a motion instructing their council "to take the necessary steps in conjunction with the Royal College of Physicians to ensure that all persons who pass the Conjoint examination shall be legally entitled to call themselves Doctors". The council of the surgeons' College felt it to be impractical to secure the legal right to the title as this would mean gaining the right to award MDs, but noted that the title had been used by the public to refer to medics for generations and was used without any legal right by Bachelors of Medicine – the only obstacle to licentiates of both colleges doing the same was the prohibition in the physicians' bylaws. On this occasion the College of Physicians refused to act, but they did finally relent in 1912, removing the clause forbidding the assumption of the title of Doctor.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=20287378|journal=BMJ|pages=1320–1321|date=11 November 1905|title=Universities and Colleges|volume=2|issue=2341|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.2341.1320|last1=Rhodes|first1=Jno. M.|pmc=2322613}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|jstor=25299835|journal=BMJ|date=21 December 1912|title=Universities and Colleges|volume=2|issue=2712|pages=1734|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.2712.1733|s2cid=220186521}}</ref> This was described in the American press as "the British apostles of red-tape have been forced to bow to the popular will".<ref>{{cite news|work=The Sentinel|title= More British Doctors.|url=http://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/sn93063544/1913-07-03/ed-1/seq-4.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161127154100/http://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/sn93063544/1913-07-03/ed-1/seq-4.pdf |archive-date=2016-11-27 |url-status=live|date=3 July 1913}}</ref>

Regulation of the medical profession also took place in the United States in the latter half of the 19th century, preventing quacks from using the title of Doctor.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=American Journal of Nursing|author=A. T. Bristol|title=What Registration Has Done for the Medical Profession|date= December 1903|pages=61–67|volume=4|issue=3|doi=10.2307/3401721|edition=3|jstor=3401721|quote=Of what value was the title of doctor if we were to share it with chiropodists, traveling fakirs and Indian medicine men? … The present medical act … prevents the fraudulent use off the title of doctor}}</ref> However, medical usage of the title was far from exclusive, with it being acknowledged that other doctorate holders could use the title and that dentists and veterinarians frequently did.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dx44AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA221|work=Medical Record|page=221|title="Dr." or "M.D."?|date=20 February 1886|last1=Shrady|first1=George Frederick|last2=Stedman|first2=Thomas Lathrop}}</ref> ''The Etiquette of To-day'', published in 1913, recommended addressing letters to physicians "(full name), M.D." and those to other people holding doctorates "Dr. (full name)", although both were "Dr." in the salutation and only physicians were explicitly said to include their title on their [[Biology:Visiting card|visiting card]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/etiquetteoftoday00ordw|title=The Etiquette of To-day|author=Edith Ordway|date=1913|pages=[https://archive.org/details/etiquetteoftoday00ordw/page/62 62], 101|publisher=Sully and Kleinteich, New York}}</ref> By the 1920s there were a great variety of doctorates in the US, many of them taking entrants directly from high school, and ranging from the Doctor of Chiropractic (DC), which (at the time) required only two or three years of college-level education,{{NoteTag|The requirements for the DC are higher in the modern era, typically needing four years of bachelor's-level pre-medical training for entry followed by a four to five year professional course<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.acatoday.org/Patients/Why-Choose-Chiropractic/Chiropractic-Qualifications |title = Chiropractic Qualifications |publisher=American Chiropractic Association |access-date=22 March 2017 }}</ref>}} up to the PhD. All doctoral degree holders, with the exception of the JD, were customarily addressed as "Doctor", but the title was also regularly used, without doctoral degrees, by pharmacists, ministers of religion, teachers and chiropodists, and sometimes by other professions such as beauty practitioners, patent medicine manufacturers, etc.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=1487677|title=Who Is a Doctor?|author=A. L. Crabbe|journal=Peabody Journal of Education|volume=2|issue=5|date=March 1925|pages=268–273|doi=10.1080/01619562509534672}}</ref>

By the 1940s, the widespread usage of the title in the US was under threat. A 1944 article claimed that "the Ph.D. has immediate and far-reaching value of social as well as economic nature" due to America's "national fondness for the tinsel of titles", but went on to note that some universities were moving away from using the title, concluding that "it is ungracious in most environments not to render unto the Doctor of Philosophy his 'Doctor' title".<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=40220511 |title=Thoughts on the Doctorate |author=A. M. Withers |journal=Bulletin of the American Association of University Professors |volume=30 |issue= 1 |date=February 1944 |pages = 92–96 |doi=10.2307/40220511 }}</ref> The same writer noted in a letter to the ''Journal of Higher Education'' in 1948 that [[Organization:Alfred University|Alfred University]] had banned the use of the title for faculty (while retaining it for the president and deans) "in a strange move professedly designed to uphold and promote 'democracy' and 'Americanism{{' "}}.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=1976326 |title=Doctorphobia at Alfred University |author=A. M. Withers |journal= Journal of Higher Education |volume= 19 |issue= 6 |date=June 1948 |pages = 320–330 |doi=10.1080/00221546.1948.11775755}}</ref> However, it was noted in 1959 that professors with PhDs were now generally addressed as "Doctor", with the title of "Professor" sometimes being substituted for those without doctorates, leading to a decline in the perceived value of that title.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=1978012 |title=Pursuit of The Word "Professor": an Exploration of the Uses and Associations of the Title |author=Robert L. Coard
|volume= 30 |issue= 5 |date=May 1959 |pages = 237–245 |journal = Journal of Higher Education |doi=10.2307/1978012 }}</ref>
In the 1960s the inconsistent usage at American universities and colleges was mentioned in the ''New York Times Book Review'' and the editor of ''Science'' noted that: "In some universities, administrators call all Ph.D.'s 'Mister,' but students and colleagues call them 'Doctor.' Often, but not always, Ph.D.'s are 'Misters' socially. In industry and government, both socially and professionally, they are 'Doctors,' as they are also in the pages of the ''New Yorker'', ''Time'', the ''Saturday Review'', and the New York ''Times''."<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=1706994 |journal=Science |date=17 February 1961 |author= Graham duShane |title= A Question of Degrees |volume= 133 |issue= 3451 |pages=441 |doi=10.1126/science.133.3451.441|pmid=17754428 |bibcode=1961Sci...133..441D |doi-access=free }}</ref> In 1965, the League of Women Voters designated medical doctors "Dr." and PhDs "Mr." at a hustings in Princeton, leading to a letter of protest in ''Science''; it was reported that the League believed PhDs would be embarrassed by the title, and that etiquette writers differed in whether PhDs used the title.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=1716228|journal=Science|date=30 July 1965|author=M. A. Benarde|title=Rank Discrimination|volume=149|issue= 3683 |pages=499|doi=10.1126/science.149.3683.499|pmid=17843184|bibcode=1965Sci...149..499B|s2cid=206565256 }}</ref> In 1970, reverse snobbism in the face of the rising number of "discount doctorates" was linked to professors at prestigious universities wanting to be called "mister".<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=1978903|title=On Being Called Doctor
|author=George E. Berkley
|journal=The Journal of Higher Education
|volume= 41|issue=7 |date=October 1970|pages=556–561|doi=10.2307/1978903
}}</ref>

In the late 1960s the rising number of American law schools awarding [[Social:Juris Doctor|Juris Doctor]] (JD) degrees led to debate over whether lawyers could ethically use the title "Doctor". Initial informal ethics opinions, based on the Canons of Professional Ethics then in force, came down against this.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=25724462|journal=American Bar Association Journal|date=July 1968|title= Summaries of Informal Opinions of the Standing Committee on Professional Ethics |volume= 54|issue= 7|pages=657|quote = 1001. A lawyer holding a J.D. degree may not ethically use, either orally or in print, the title "Doctor" professionally or socially.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |jstor=25724818|journal=American Bar Association Journal|date=June 1969|title= Summaries of Informal Opinions of the Standing Committee on Professional Ethics |volume= 55|issue= 6|pages=564–589}}</ref> These were then reinforced with a full ethics opinion that maintained the ban on using the title in legal practice as a form of self-laudation (except when dealing with countries where the use of "Doctor" by lawyers was standard practice), but allowed the use of the title in academia "if the school of graduation thinks of the J.D. degree as a doctor's degree".<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=25724785|journal=American Bar Association Journal|date=May 1969|title= Opinions of the Committee on Professional Ethics |volume= 55|issue= 5|pages= 451–453|last1=Boodell|first1=Thomas J.|last2=Carson|first2=C. A.|last3=Gates|first3=Benton E.|last4=Joiner|first4=Charles W.|last5=McAlpin|first5=Kirk M.|last6=Myers|first6=Samuel P.|last7=Sperry|first7=Floyd B.|last8=Armstrong|first8=Walter P.}}</ref> These opinions led to further debate.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=25724845|journal=American Bar Association Journal|date=June 1969|title= The Juris "Doctor"—A Question of Ethics?|volume= 55|issue= 7|author=David Hittner|pages=663–665}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |jstor=25724927|journal=American Bar Association Journal|date=June 1969|title= Don't Call Me Doctor|volume= 55|issue= 20|author=William H. Shields|pages= 960–963}}</ref> The introduction of the new Code of Professional Responsibility in 1969 seemed to settle the question – in states where this was adopted – in favour of allowing the use of the title.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=25724947|journal=American Bar Association Journal |date=November 1969|title= Views of our Readers – Editor's Note|volume= 55 |issue= 11 |pages=1006–1026 |last1=Hillsberg |first1=Richard W. |last2=McGiffert |first2=David E. |last3=Herbert |first3=Williard A. |last4=Lansdowne |first4=Robert J. |last5=Hyatt |first5=Hudson |last6=Chandler |first6=Kent |last7=Pederson |first7=Virgil L. |last8=Bodkin |first8=Henry G. |last9=Marks |first9=Edward |last10=Wasby |first10=Stephen L. |last11=Kandt |first11=William C. |last12=Taylor |first12=Herman E. |last13=Berall |first13=Frank S. |last14=Collins |first14=Hugh B. |last15=Barr |first15=J. E. |last16=Mellor |first16=Phillip |last17=Hittner |first17=David |last18=Turnbull |first18=Frederick W. |last19=Adams |first19=Paul |last20=Widman |first20=Joel L. |last21=Tollett |first21=Kenneth S. }}</ref> There was some dispute over whether only the PhD-level [[Social:Doctor of Juridical Science|Doctor of Juridical Science]] should properly be seen as granting the title,<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=25725564 |journal=American Bar Association Journal |date=August 1971 |title= Revisiting the "Doctor" Debate |author=S. C. Yuter |volume= 57 |issue= 8 |pages = 790–892 }}</ref> but ethics opinions made it clear that the new Code allowed JD-holders to be called "Doctor", while reaffirming that the older Canons did not.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=25725213|journal=American Bar Association Journal|date=August 1970|title= Summaries of Informal Opinions of the Standing Committee on Professional Ethics |volume= 56|issue= 8|pages=750}}</ref> As not all state bars adopted the new Code, and some omitted the clause permitting the use of the title, confusion over whether lawyers could ethically use the title "Doctor" continued.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=27846360|journal=American Bar Association Journal|date=November 2006|title= LAWYERS ARE DOCTORS, TOO: But There is No Clear Ethics Rule on Whether They May Say So|volume= 92|issue= 11|pages=24|author=Kathleen Maher}}</ref> The introduction of further professional doctorates in the US at ISCED level 7, the same as the MD and JD, has led to continuing debate about the use of the title by holders of such degrees, particularly in medical contexts.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bartonassociates.com/blog/are-nurse-practitioner-doctors-real-doctors/?p=2016/04/28/are-nurse-practitioner-doctors-real-doctors/|title=Are Nurse Practitioner Doctors Real Doctors?|author=Melissa Decapua|date=28 April 2016|publisher=Barton Associates|access-date=5 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180806090912/https://www.bartonassociates.com/blog/are-nurse-practitioner-doctors-real-doctors/?p=2016%2F04%2F28%2Fare-nurse-practitioner-doctors-real-doctors%2F|archive-date=6 August 2018|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/02/health/policy/02docs.html|title=When the Nurse Wants to Be Called Doctor|work={{wipe|The New York Times}}|date=1 October 2011|author=Gardiner Harris|access-date=5 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/isced_2011_mapping_en_usa_1.xlsx|publisher=[[Organization:UNESCO|UNESCO]]|title=ISCED 2011 mapping for the US|access-date=5 August 2011}}</ref>

In 2018, a decision by ''The Globe and Mail'' newspaper in Canada to update its style guide so as to restrict the use of the title Doctor to medics led to a backlash on [[Company:Twitter|Twitter]], particularly by women with PhDs, using the #ImmodestWomen [[Hashtag|hashtag]]. This was widely reported on internationally and led to ''The Globe and Mail'' reverting to its earlier style of using Doctor for both physicians and PhD holders.<ref>{{cite web|title=''The Globe and Mail''|url=https://www.twitter.com/picardonhealth/status/1017898231072788480|author=André Picard, health columnist at The Globe and Mail|access-date=5 August 2018|quote=The @globeandmail has reversed its earlier Style guide decision on honorifics and will now refer to PhD holders as 'Dr.' #journalism}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.marieclaire.fr/sur-twitter-les-femmes-revendiquent-leurs-diplomes-et-leurs-capacites,1269502.asp |work=Marie Claire |language=fr |title= Sur Twitter, les femmes revendiquent leurs diplômes et leurs capacités |author= Juliette Hochberg |date= 21 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/28/opinion/women-dont-back-down-online.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/28/opinion/women-dont-back-down-online.html |archive-date=2022-01-01 |url-access=limited |title= Women, Own Your 'Dr.' Titles |author=Julia Baird |date=28 June 2018 |work={{wipe|The New York Times}}}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2018/jun/18/should-female-doctors-hide-their-title-why-immodestwomen-say-no |title= Should female doctors hide their title? Why #immodestwomen say no|author= Frances Ryan |date=18 June 2018 |work={{wipe|The Guardian}}}}</ref> The Canadian University of Calgary also announced that it would adopt the use of Doctor for those with doctoral degrees, breaking with the style recommended by the Canadian Press.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.ucalgary.ca/utoday/issue/2018-06-22/ucalgary-widens-use-dr-title-external-communications-0 |title=UCalgary widens use of 'Dr.' title in external communications |date=22 June 2018 |publisher= Univ. of Calgary |access-date=5 August 2018}}</ref>

==Doctor as a noun==
Throughout much of the academic world, the term ''Doctor'' refers to someone who has earned a doctoral degree (highest degree) from a university.<ref name="OED Doctor">{{cite web |url= https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/doctor |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161224233939/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/doctor |url-status= dead |archive-date= 24 December 2016 |title=Doctor |website= Oxford Living Dictionaries |publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]] |access-date= 24 December 2016}}</ref> This is normally the [[Social:Doctor of Philosophy|Doctor of Philosophy]], abbreviated PhD (sometimes Ph.D. in North America) from the Latin ''Philosophiae Doctor'' or DPhil from its English name,<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=OP5ePl7i5EIC&pg=PA125 |page=125 |title= The History of the University of Oxford: The twentieth century |quote= Very few persons had received even an honorary DLitt by 1916 when the Reverend E. M. Walker, Senior Tutor of Queen's, proposed, as the ''Oxford Magazine'' put it, that the University 'should divert the stream' of American aspirants to the German universities' degree of ''philosophiae doctor'' by opening the DLitt to persons offering a suitable dissertation nine terms after graduation. Apart from a successful move led by Sidney Ball, philosophy tutor at St John's, to distinguish the proposed arrangement from both the DLitt and the German PhD by adopting the English title 'doctor of philosophy' (DPhil), the scheme meet with little opposition |chapter= The Arts and Social Studies, 1914–1939 |author= Robert Currie |editor= Brian Harrison |publisher=Clarendon Press |date=1994|isbn=9780198229742 }}</ref> or equivalent research doctorates at level 8 of the [[International Standard Classification of Education]] 2011 classifications (ISCED 2011) or level 6 of the ISCED 1997 classifications. Beyond academia (but specifically in the anglophone world, Italy, and France), ''Doctor'' as a noun normally refers to a medical practitioner,<ref name="OED Doctor"/> who would usually hold a qualification at level 7 of ISCED 2011/level 5 of ISCED 1997 such as the British MBBS or the American [[Medicine:Doctor of Medicine|MD]] or [[Medicine:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine|DO]].<ref>{{cite web |url= https://uis.unesco.org/en/isced-mappings |title= ISCED Mappings |publisher=[[Organization:UNESCO|UNESCO]] |access-date= 24 December 2016|date= 22 November 2016 }}</ref>

==Forms of address==

When addressing several people, each of whom holds a doctoral title, one may use the plural contraction "Drs" (or "Drs." in [[Social:American and British English spelling differences|American English]]) – or in some languages (for example, German) "Dres." (from the Latin doctores) may be used – for example, instead of Dr. Miller and Dr. Rubinstein: Drs. Miller and Rubinstein. When referring to relatives with the same surname the form "The Doctors Smith" can be used. The abbreviation Drs. can also refer to [[Social:Doctorandus|doctorandus]], a Dutch academic title that was replaced with the master title with the introduction of the master system.

In English, Dr is not usually combined with other titles, except for [[Religion:The Reverend|The Reverend]] in "The Revd Dr" before the surname of a minister of religion, e.g., "The Revd Dr Smith" or "The Revd John Smith, DD", and similarly "Rabbi Dr". In Caribbean English, the usage "Dr. the Honourable" is common for politicians holding doctoral degrees.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://zizonline.com/cbi-programme-is-integral-to-long-term-development-of-st-kitts-and-nevis-pm-harris-says/|title=CBI Programme is integral to long-term development of St. Kitts and Nevis, PM Harris says|quote=Prime Minister Dr. the Honourable Timothy Harris says...|access-date=16 September 2017|date=25 May 2017|work=ZIZ|publisher=National Broadcasting Corporation of St. Kitts & Nevis}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=WELCOME REMARKS BY DR. THE HONOURABLE HENRY B. JEFFREY, MINISTER OF FOREIGN TRADE AND INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION, GUYANA, AT THE TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING OF THE COUNCIL FOR TRADE AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (COTED), 24 NOVEMBER 2008, GEORGETOWN, GUYANA|url=http://caricom.org/media-center/communications/speeches/welcome-remarks-by-dr-the-honourable-henry-b-jeffrey-minister-of-foreign|publisher=Caricom|access-date=16 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Daily Brief By Premier & Minister Of Finance Dr. The Honourable D. Orlando Smith|url=http://www.bviddm.com/daily-brief-by-premier-minister-of-finance-dr-the-honourable-d-orlando-smith/|publisher=BVI Department of Disaster Management|access-date=16 September 2017|date=15 September 2017}}</ref> Usage in many other languages is similar to English but some, notably German, allow for the stacking of titles.

==Usage by medical practitioners in the UK and culturally-related countries==
In the {{wipe|United Kingdom}}, {{wipe|India}}, {{wipe|Pakistan}}, [[Place:Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], Trinidad and Tobago, {{wipe|South Africa}}, {{wipe|Australia}}, [[Earth:New Zealand|New Zealand]], Ghana, and other countries whose cultures were recently linked to the UK, the title ''Dr'' is generally used both for those who hold doctoral degrees and for registered medical practitioners. History has dictated the use of the courtesy title ''Dr'' by physicians and general practitioners.<ref>Charlton, Rodger (2007) ''Learning to Consult'', Radcliffe Publishing, Oxford, pp. 35–36</ref> However, surgeons do not use the title of ''Dr'' and, due to the origins of surgery with the barber surgeons, instead use ''Mr, Mrs, Ms, Miss'', etc. This custom applies to surgeons of any grade who have passed the appropriate exams and is not the exclusive province of consultant-level surgeons. In recent times, other surgically orientated specialists, such as gynaecologists, have also adopted these prefixes. A surgeon who is also a professor is usually known as "Professor" and, similarly, a surgeon who has been ennobled, knighted, created a baronet or appointed a dame uses the corresponding title (Lord, Sir, Dame). [[Medicine:Physician|Physician]]s, on the other hand, when they pass their "MRCP(UK)" examinations, or equivalent, do not drop ''Dr'' but retain it, even as consultants. The status and rank of consultant surgeons, addressed as "Mister" or "Ms.", and consultant physicians, addressed as "Doctor", is equivalent.

==Worldwide usage==
[[File:The Union Minister for Health & Family Welfare, Shri J.P. Nadda presenting the Phd degree to a student at the 20th Convocation Ceremony of NIMHANS, at Bengaluru on February 13, 2016.jpg|thumb|A doctor receiving her PhD degree during a graduation ceremony.]]

===Asia===

====Bangladesh====
In Bangladesh, use of the title of Doctor (Dr.) is permitted for PhD degree holders and registered medical practitioners. According to an amendment, universities are allowed to approve or reject any subject proposed for a thesis by a candidate for the degree of "Doctor" in any subject.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/sections_detail.php?id=438&sections_id=12823&vol=17&search=Doctor|title= THE RAJSHAHI UNIVERSITY ACT, 1973 (ACT NO. XXVI OF 1973). |publisher=Govt. Of The People Republic Of Bangladesh|access-date=16 December 2016}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=December 2016}} For registered medical practitioners, only MBBS and BDS degree holders are allowed to use the title "Dr." and be called "Medical Doctors".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/bangla_all_sections.php?id=1065|title=Bangladesh Medical & Dental Council Act, 2010. |language=bn |at=29 |publisher=Govt. Of The People Republic Of Bangladesh|access-date=16 December 2016}}</ref> Registered veterinary practitioners may use the title "Dr." after earning the "Doctor of Veterinary Medicine" (DVM) degree. However, Registered Homeopath practitioners also use the title "Dr." even though, according to Homeopathic Practitioners Ordinance 1983, they are only permitted to use "Homeopath".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/print_sections_all.php?id=649|title=THE BANGLADESH HOMOEOPATHIC PRACTITIONERS ORDINANCE, 1983 (ORDINANCE NO. XLI OF 1983). |publisher=Govt. Of The People Republic Of Bangladesh|access-date=16 December 2016}}</ref> Currently, Physiotherapy has no separate council and no authorized act at present permits the use of the prefix  "Dr."  for physiotherapist. According to Bangladesh Unani & Ayurvedic Practitioners Ordinance 1983, practitioners of the Unani system are called  "Tabib" or "Hakim" and are strictly prohibited from using the title  "Dr."; similarly, practitioners of Ayurvedic system are called "Vaid" or "Kabiraj" and are also strictly prohibited from using  "Dr.".<ref>{{cite web |url = http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/print_sections_all.php?id=645 |title=BANGLADESH UNANI AND AYURVEDIC PRACTITIONERS ORDINANCE, 1983 (ORDINANCE NO. XXXII OF 1983) |publisher=Govt. Of The People Republic Of Bangladesh |access-date=16 December 2016 }}</ref> Currently, medical practitioners having MBBS degree or dental surgeons having BDS are legally permitted to use "Dr." prefix. Using "Dr." for other medical practitioners remains controversial.

==== Hong Kong ====
[[Place:Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] follows British practice in calling physicians "Doctor" even though many of them hold only a degree of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS or MBChB). An attempt by their professional body to prevent chiropractors from calling themselves "Doctor" failed in the courts, in part because it was pointed out that practicing chiropractors may hold an academic doctorate in their discipline, and it would be anomalous to prevent them using the title when holders of doctorates in non-medical disciplines faced no such restriction.

====India====
In {{wipe|India}}, the title is used by qualified professional medical practitioners in the fields of allopathic [[Medicine:Medicine|medicine]] (MBBS), and [[Medicine:Dentistry|dentistry]](BDS) 
as well as by other practitioners like [[Medicine:Siddha medicine|Siddha]] (BSMS), [[Unsolved:Yoga as therapy|Yoga]] and [[Unsolved:Naturopathy|Naturopathy]] (BNYS), [[Philosophy:Ayurveda|Ayurveda]] (BAMS), Unani (BUMS) and [[Unsolved:Homeopathy|Homeopathy]](BHMS), Veterinarians (BVSc) and holders of doctoral degrees, including PhDs and pharmacists with PharmDs.<ref>{{cite news|title=Pharm D degree holders can use 'Dr' prefix|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/69528007.cms|work=The Times of India|date=28 May 2019|author=Chaitanya Deshpande}}</ref> Physiotherapists (BPT) use 'Doctor' as a suffix accompanied by the prefix PT.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sarvgyan.com/courses/medical/physiotherapy|title=Physiotherapy|date=18 February 2022 |accessdate=5 July 2022|publisher=Sarvgyan}}</ref> 

The usage by pharmacists is legally disputed,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.healthissuesindia.com/2019/06/07/supreme-court-could-hear-pharmacy-council-fight-over-use-of-the-title-doctor/|title=Supreme Court could hear Pharmacy Council fight over use of the title doctor
|date=7 June 2019 |author=Kerean Watts|work=Health Issues India}}</ref> while the Supreme Court of India has ruled against the use of the title as a prefix by physiotherapists.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/readersblog/dr-dhruva-prasaf/physiotherapists-continue-to-put-dr-prefix-illegally-4559/|title=Physiotherapists continue to put 'Dr' prefix illegally|author= Dhruva Prasad|date=9 July 2019|work=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Can physiotherapists be called doctors?
|date=30 August 2019 |author= Shipra Suman|url=https://www.shiksha.com/medicine-health-sciences/articles/can-physiotherapists-be-called-a-doctor-what-does-the-law-say-blogId-23049|work=Shiksa}}</ref>

====Indonesia====
The Indonesian titles "dr." is used in front of the name of medical doctor who holds a specification as general practitioner, also when the doctor already holds his specialization to ___, such as "Sp.THT" or "Spesialis Telinga, Hidung, Tenggorokan" (ENT or Ear, Nose, and Throat Specialist).

Dr. is used in front of the name as the title "Doktor" for doctorate title, the same level as PhD title.

====Pakistan====
In {{wipe|Pakistan}}, the title of Doctor (Dr.) can be used by PhD degree holders as well as medical, dental, optometry and veterinary doctors with MBBS, [[Social:Dental degree|BDS]], OD and DVM degrees respectively.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://tribuneonlineng.com/are-medical-doctors-against-optometrists-being-called-eye-doctors/|title = Are medical doctors against optometrists being called eye doctors?| newspaper=Tribune Online |date = 21 November 2019}}</ref> Usage by physiotherapists DPT degree respectively is disputed, with the Pakistan Medical and Dental Council saying they should not use the title, but the Pharmacy Council of Pakistan (the regulatory body for pharmacists) and the Higher Education Commission permitting and encouraging its use.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1198927|title=PMDC divests pharmacists, physios of doctor title|work=Dawn|author=Asif Chaudhry|date=7 August 2015}}</ref>

====Philippines====
In the {{wipe|Philippines}}, titles and names of occupations usually follow [[Social:Spanish language|Spanish]] naming conventions which utilize gender-specific terms. "''Doktór''" is the masculine form, which retains the abbreviation ''Dr.''; the feminine form is "''Doktóra''", and is abbreviated usually as "''Dra.''"; others, however, some being [[Social:English language|Anglophones]] who wish to sound modern and Westernised (or were raised in an almost exclusively English-speaking family environment), or some who advocate gender equality, would dispense with the distinction altogether. There does exist in [[Social:Filipino language|Filipino]] an equivalent, gender-neutral term for the professional that carries the more general notion of "healer", traditional (for example, an ''[[Unsolved:Albularyo|albuláryo]]'') or otherwise: ''manggagámot''. Contracted "Dr" or "Dr.", it is also used as a designation for a person who has obtained a doctorate degree (e.g. PhD, [[Social:Doctor of Education|EdD]], DPA).

====Sri Lanka====
In Sri Lanka the title doctor "Dr." is used for PhD holders and medical practitioner such as physicians, surgeons, dental surgeons and veterinarians. However, when addressing in native Sinhalese a medical practitioner is addressed as "Vaidya" (වෛද්ය) or "Dosthara" (දොස්තර) while a PhD holder is addressed as "Aacharya" (ආචාර්ය). It is a common practice for married female medical practitioners to use the title "Dr (Mrs)" in a both professional and social capacity.

====Thailand====
The usage of Doctor (ดอกเตอร์) or Dr (ดร.) has been borrowed from English. It can be seen as a title in academic circles and in the mass media. In contrast to other academic titles (Professor, Associate Professor and assistant professor), the use of Doctor as a title has not been recognized by the Royal Institute of Thailand. Therefore, this title, in theory, cannot be used officially. For example, in court of justice where strictly formal Thai language is used, Dr cannot be mentioned as a person's title.

===The Americas===

====Brazil====
The 'doctor' title is used by individuals holding a PhD degree.<ref>STUARD, Powell, HOWARD, Green. The Doctorate Worldwide {{ISBN|9780335220205}}. McGraw-Hill Education (UK), 2007</ref> 'Doctor' is also used as a deferential title in Brazilian Portuguese.<ref>KOIKE, Dale April. Language and Social Relationship in Brazilian Portuguese: The Pragmatics of Politeness. {{ISBN|9780292768970}}. University of Texas Press, 2014.</ref> The title “Doctor” can also be used in Brazil to address  medics and lawyers by the law since the imperial times. The law was enacted by the second Brazilian emperor, Dom Pedro II, to attract more medics and lawyers from other countries in imperial times when there was very few practitioners of both professions in the country for the crescent population of that time. The law still is enacted.

====Canada====
Canada lies somewhere between British and American usage of the degree and terminology of "doctor". Holders of research doctorates – PhDs and similar degrees – commonly use the title "doctor".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.macleans.ca/education/uniandcollege/what-do-you-call-a-professor/|title=What do you call a professor?|author=Todd Pettigrew|date=30 August 2009|work=Maclean's}}</ref> A number of regulated healthcare professionals can also use the title "doctor"; in Ontario these are limited by law (in the provision of health care) to physicians, dentists, optometrists, chiropractors, doctorate-level psychologists and social workers who are members of the relevant Ontario college.<ref>{{cite web |title=SWSSWA Amendment: Use of the title "Doctor" – OCSWSSW |url=https://www.ocswssw.org/professional-practice/swsswa-amendment/ |publisher=Ontario College of Social Workers and Social Service Workers |access-date=30 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wisehealthlaw.ca/blog/health-professionals/restricted-titles-and-the-regulation-of-health-professionals-in-ontario/ |title=Restricted Titles and the Regulation of Health Professionals in Ontario| work=Wise Health Law|date=22 August 2017|author=Esther Nwator}}</ref> In Alberta, Registered Nurses or Nurse Practitioners with an earned doctoral degree may use the title "doctor" in conjunction with professional practice.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qp.alberta.ca/documents/Regs/2005_232.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404053655/http://www.qp.alberta.ca/documents/Regs/2005_232.pdf |archive-date=2012-04-04 |url-status=live|title=Registered Nurses Profession Regulation|publisher=Alberta Queen's Printer|at=14(3)|access-date=5 December 2016}}</ref> Some professionals earn degrees with the title of doctor but which are considered, despite their name, to be at bachelor's-level, e.g. DDS, [[Medicine:Doctor of Medicine|MD]], [[Social:Juris Doctor|JD]].<ref name=cdqf>{{cite web|url=http://www.cmec.ca/Publications/Lists/Publications/Attachments/95/QA-Statement-2007.en.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101009094042/http://www.cmec.ca/Publications/Lists/Publications/Attachments/95/QA-Statement-2007.en.pdf |archive-date=2010-10-09 |url-status=live|title= Canadian Degree Qualifications Framework|publisher=Council of Ministers of Education, Canada| quote=Though considered to be bachelor's programs in academic standing, some professional programs yield degrees with other nomenclature. Examples: DDS (Dental Surgery), MD (Medicine), LLB, or JD (Juris Doctor)|access-date=5 December 2016|work=Ministerial Statement on Quality Assurance of Degree Education in Canada}}</ref> In Ontario, registered naturopathic doctors may only use the title "doctor" in written format if they also use the phrase, "naturopathic doctor" immediately following their name, while a 2006 amendment that would allow practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine to use the title has not, {{as of|2016|August|1|lc=y}}, entered into force.<ref>{{cite web|title=Regulated Health Professions Act, 1991|url=http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_91r18_e.htm#BK31|at=33 Restriction of the title "doctor"|access-date=5 December 2016|date=24 July 2014}}</ref> As of 2022, in Alberta, Doctors of Acupuncture may use the doctor title. <ref>{{cite web|title=Regulated Health Professions Act of Alberta| date=17 September 2012 |url=https://kings-printer.alberta.ca/1266.cfm?page=H07.cfm&leg_type=Acts&isbncln=9780779828425}}</ref>

=====Quebec=====
The usage of the French ''Docteur'' and ''Docteure'', and their abbreviated forms ''Dr'', ''Dre'', ''D{{sup|r}}'' and ''D{{sup|re}}'', is controlled by the ''Code des professions''. As a pre-nominal title it can be used without any further explication by physicians, veterinarians, and dentists. It can also be used prenominally, when accompanied by the name of the profession immediately after the name, by professionals who require a doctorate for their professional licence, such as psychology, and chiropractic, e.g. ''Dr X, psychologue'' or ''Dr Y, chiropraticien''. Academic doctors, where the doctorate is not required to practice, bear the title only after their name; this is not abbreviated, e.g. ''M. Z, docteur en philosophie'' not ''M. Z, PhD''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://protecteurducitoyen.qc.ca/fr/conseils/capsules/votre-docteur-est-il-medecin|title=Votre docteur est-il un médecin?|publisher=Le Protecteur du citoyen|date=10 June 2015|language=fr|access-date=11 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220093900/https://protecteurducitoyen.qc.ca/fr/conseils/capsules/votre-docteur-est-il-medecin|archive-date=20 December 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.francaisenaffaires.com/capsules-linguistiques/les-titres-de-civilite/titre-de-civilite.html|title=Titres professionnels|work=Le français en affaires|language=fr|access-date=11 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220165305/http://www.francaisenaffaires.com/capsules-linguistiques/les-titres-de-civilite/titre-de-civilite.html|archive-date=20 December 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://bdl.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/bdl/gabarit_bdl.asp?id=2778|title=Docteur|work=Banque de dépannage linguistique|publisher=Government of Quebec|language=fr|access-date=11 December 2016}}</ref>

====United States====
In the United States, the use of the title "Doctor" is dependent upon the setting. The title is commonly used socially by physicians and those holding doctoral degrees;<ref>Post (1997). Etiquette. New York: HarperCollins. pp. 306, 307, 335–336.</ref> however, there was formerly a division between Letitia Baldrige and Miss Manners on its social usage by those who are not physicians.<ref name=kip>{{cite journal|author=Kiplinger Washington Editors, Inc.|title=Kiplinger's Personal Finance|journal=Kiplinger's Personal Finance Magazine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA84|access-date=14 April 2011|date=July 1988|publisher=Kiplinger Washington Editors, Inc.|page=84|issn=1528-9729 }}</ref> Baldrige saw this usage as acceptable, while in contrast, Miss Manners wrote that "only people of the medical profession correctly use the title of doctor socially," but supports those who wish to use it in social contexts in the spirit of addressing people according to their wishes.<ref name=kip/><ref name="Martin2005">{{cite book|author=Judith Martin|title=Miss Manners' guide to excruciatingly correct behavior|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FOodocaTLsMC&pg=PA105|access-date=14 April 2011|date=26 April 2005|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-05874-1|page=105}}</ref> Miss Manners has since softened her approach, noting in her ''{{wipe|The Washington Post}}'' column that there are two approaches: "having been earned, it should be used" and "that level of education being assumed, it need not be expressly mentioned"; while she maintains that everyone should be addressed according to their wishes, she no longer states that only medical professionals use the title correctly but instead acknowledges that the title has been earned by those with PhDs.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/miss-manners-graduation-cake-is-to-be-eaten-not-reserved/2014/05/20/924f347c-dd23-11e3-b745-87d39690c5c0_story.html|title=Miss Manners: Graduation cake is to be eaten, not reserved|newspaper={{wipe|The Washington Post}}|date= 11 June 2014}}</ref> The Emily Post Institute similarly advises that "Socially as well as professionally, medical doctors, dentists, and other professionals are addressed by, and introduced with, their titles. People who have earned a Ph.D. or any other academic, nonmedical doctoral degree have the choice of whether to use "Dr." both professionally and socially."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://emilypost.com/advice/professional-titles/|title=Professional Titles|publisher=Emily Post Institute|access-date=19 November 2016}}</ref> Other advice columns have also noted that "it has become common to see someone with a Ph.D. addressed on the envelope as Dr., and as a consequence, deviation from convention has become acceptable."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.drdaveanddee.com/doctor.html|title=Addressing Envelope for M.D. and Ph.D.|website=Advice with Dr. Dave and Dr. Dee|access-date=3 December 2016}}</ref> The 2017 book ''Etiquette Rules!'' gives identical forms for addressing a "doctor of medicine (MD), dental surgery (DDS), veterinary medicine (DVM), etc.", and the holder of a PhD, advising in both cases the use of initials after the name for formal correspondence and Dr. before the name for social correspondence.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vJ05DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|title=Etiquette Rules!|pages=92–93|author=Nancy R. Mitchell|publisher=Wellfleet Press|date=17 October 2017|isbn=9780760361818}}</ref> Although the usage of the title by Ph.D. graduates has become common, its use socially by holders of professional doctorates (other than those noted) is neither explicitly endorsed nor explicitly discouraged by writers on etiquette. Miss Manners has, however, stated that a physician who has had their license revoked should be addressed by their former preferred honorific (i.e. not according to their MD degree).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/miss-manners-all-family-members-estranged-or-not-belong-in-an-obituary/2017/01/27/d272452a-d9e8-11e6-b8b2-cb5164beba6b_story.html|title=Miss Manners: All family members, estranged or not, belong in an obituary|newspaper={{wipe|The Washington Post}}|date=27 January 2017|author=Judith Martin, Nicholas Martin and Jacobina Martin}}</ref>  It is unusual for those who hold honorary doctorates to use the title "Doctor".<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/117947/maya-angelou-was-ms-not-dr-against-title-inflation-america|title=Why Do People Call Ms. Maya Angelou "Dr. Maya Angelou"?|author=Mark Oppenheimer|date=29 May 2014|magazine=New Republic|access-date=21 November 2016}}</ref>

Publications from the office of the President of the United States of America also refer to PhD holders as Dr. Soandso,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/administration/eop/onap/staff/lansky|title=Amy Lansky|access-date=21 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121000433/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/administration/eop/onap/staff/lansky|archive-date=21 January 2017|url-status=live|via=National Archives|work=whitehouse.gov|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Jo Handelsman|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/administration/eop/ostp/about/leadershipstaff/handelsman|access-date=21 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122015712/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/administration/eop/ostp/about/leadershipstaff/handelsman|archive-date=22 January 2017|url-status=live|via=National Archives|work=Office of Science and Technology Policy|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
and Jill Biden, who holds an [[Social:Doctor of Education|EdD]], used the style "Dr. Jill Biden" as second lady and has continued to do so as first lady.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/dr-jill-biden/|title=Dr. Jill Biden: First Lady|access-date=16 February 2020|website=whitehouse.gov}}</ref><ref name=JillBiden>{{cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2009/feb/02/nation/na-dr-jill-biden2|work={{wipe|Los Angeles Times}}|date=2 February 2009|author=Robin Abcarian|title=Hi, I'm Jill. Jill Biden. But please, call me Dr. Biden}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/jill-biden|title=Dr. Jill Biden|publisher=The White House|access-date=19 November 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160122092757/https://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/jill-biden|archive-date=22 January 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> For addresses  (defined as "the conventional forms of address as determined by social and official custom"), [[Organization:NASA|NASA]] uses "Dr. (full name)" in addresses for PhD holders while for physicians it uses "(full name), MD", although both are addressed as "Dr. (surname)" in the salutation (which is described as "informal").<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/npg_img/N_PR_1450_010D_/N_PR_1450_010D_.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001171434/http://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/npg_img/N_PR_1450_010D_/N_PR_1450_010D_.pdf |archive-date=2006-10-01 |url-status=live|pages=93, 101|publisher=[[Organization:NASA|NASA]]|title=NASA Correspondence Management and Communications Standards and Style w/Change 3|date=25 March 2016|chapter=Appendix F: Forms of Address}}</ref> The [[Organization:National Institutes of Health|National Institutes of Health]] similarly use "Dr. (surname)" in salutations for people with an MD, PhD or DDS.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://execsec.od.nih.gov/guidelines/docs/Letters_reference%20line%20and%20salutation.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503224718/http://execsec.od.nih.gov/guidelines/docs/Letters_reference%20line%20and%20salutation.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-03 |url-status=live|title=Letters: Reference Line, Salutation|publisher=NIH|access-date=26 March 2017}}</ref> They advise using full name followed by degrees in addresses, explicitly stating not to use the title "Dr.", although an example in the following paragraph does use the title rather than giving degrees.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://execsec.od.nih.gov/guidelines/docs/Letters_address.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503164555/http://execsec.od.nih.gov/guidelines/docs/Letters_address.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-03 |url-status=live|title=Letters: Address|publisher=NIH|access-date=26 March 2017}}</ref>

Most newspapers in the US follow the AP Stylebook and reserve the title for physicians in their house styles;<ref name=JillBiden/> notable exceptions include ''{{wipe|The New York Times}}'', which follows the preference of the individual when referring to PhD holders (although the title is not used for those with honorary doctorates),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2000/12/why_doesnt_the_times_call_condi_dr_rice.html|title=Why Doesn't the Times Call Condi "Dr. Rice"?|work=Slate|access-date=21 November 2016|date=27 December 2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://afterdeadline.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/04/13/faqs-on-style/|title=FAQs on Style|work={{wipe|The New York Times}}|at=Who's a Dr.?|access-date=3 December 2016|date=14 November 2011}}</ref>
and ''{{wipe|The Wall Street Journal}}'', which similarly prefers "Dr." for PhD holders and physicians (if this is the person's choice) while stating explicitly that the title is not used for lawyers with JDs or people with honorary doctorates.<ref>{{cite book|quote=The abbreviation ''Dr.'' should be used in second reference as a title before the names of those who are generally called doctor in their professions in the U.S. … If appropriate in context and if the individual desires it, ''Dr.'' is thus used after the first reference before the names of individuals who hold Ph.D.s and other doctoral degrees. Holders of Ph.D.s in the academic world, for example, often prefer to be called doctor. It usually isn't necessary to specify that the degree is a Ph.D., M.D. or other degree. But because the public tends to identify ''Dr.'' with physicians, if the individual's specialty isn't clear in context, mention it as quickly as possible. … Generally, try to establish the person's preference for using the title. Unless you know the person has a doctorate or other qualifying degree that he or she prefers to use, use ''Mr., Miss, Mrs.'' or ''Ms.'' If the individual's only doctorate is an honorary one, do not use ''Dr.,'' except in a quotation. Lawyers, despite their J.D. degrees, aren't called doctor. In general references to M.D.s, it is more precise to use ''physicians'' rather than ''doctors.''|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3mjxg9iNAQUC|pages=71–72|author=Paul Martin|date=15 June 2010|publisher=Simon and Schuster|title=The Wall Street Journal Guide to Business Style and Us|isbn=9781439122693}}</ref> Until 1989, {{wipe|The Washington Post}} used the title for "practitioners of the healing arts (including chiropractors and osteopaths) but not for holders of PhDs or honorary degrees", after which it dropped its use entirely.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1989/03/19/will-the-posts-new-style-raise-ahems/cf28e536-8156-4933-bf38-6ffb709f577b/|title=WILL THE POST'S NEW STYLE RAISE AHEMS?|author=Thomas W. Lippman|date=19 March 1989|newspaper={{wipe|The Washington Post}}}}</ref> Some sources state that AP style allows the use of Dr. for holders of non-medical doctoral degrees as long as their speciality is given.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://umc.utah.edu/communications-style-guide/|publisher=[[Organization:University of Utah|University of Utah]]|title=Communications Style Guide: academic degrees|access-date=2 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gatehousenewsroom.com/2015/06/05/an-ap-style-rule-a-day-keeps-the-doctor-away/|title=An AP Style rule a day keeps the doctor away|publisher=GateHouse Media|access-date=2 September 2018|date=5 June 2015}}</ref>

The expansion of professional doctorates in clinical fields in the late 20th and early 21st centuries has led to disputes between physicians and other medical professions over who can use the title in a clinical context. This has been interpreted by some as part of larger battles within medicine, such as who gets to treat patients first and who has prescribing authority.<ref>{{cite news|work={{wipe|The New York Times}}|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/02/health/policy/02docs.html|title=With More Doctorates in Health Care, a Fight Over a Title|author=Gardiner Harris|date=1 October 2011}}</ref> The American Medical Association calls for non-physicians (those not holding an MD or DO) who use the title "Doctor" and are in direct contact with patients to clarify that they are not physicians and to "define the nature of their doctorate degree",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://searchpf.ama-assn.org/SearchML/searchDetails.action?uri=%2FAMADoc%2FHOD.xml-0-3589.xml|title=Clarification of the Title "Doctor" in the Hospital Environment D-405.991|publisher=American Medical Association|access-date=20 November 2016}}</ref> while the American Osteopathic Association opposes the use of the title by non-physicians in clinical settings absolutely as (in their view) "such use deceives the public".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.osteopathic.org/inside-aoa/about/leadership/aoa-policy-search/Documents/H324-A-14-USE%20OF%20THE%20TERM%20DOCTOR.pdf|title=H324-A/14 USE OF THE TERM "DOCTOR"|publisher=American Osteopathic Association|access-date=20 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121103636/http://www.osteopathic.org/inside-aoa/about/leadership/aoa-policy-search/Documents/H324-A-14-USE%20OF%20THE%20TERM%20DOCTOR.pdf|archive-date=21 November 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Contrary to this, the Emergency Nurses Association has adopted as a position statement that "1. Nurses are entitled to have their educational degrees recognized and acknowledged in the same manner as other professions. 2. The proper title protection and use of accurate credentials is appropriate in the clinical setting. 3. When being addressed or introduced as doctor in the clinical environment, it is responsible practice for all healthcare providers to clarify their professional role. 4. Patients, families and the general public have a right and expectation to be informed regarding the credentials of their caregivers, including the use of the title "doctor"."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ena.org/SiteCollectionDocuments/Position%2520Statements/AppropriateCredential.pdf|title=Appropriate credential use/title protection for nurses with advanced degrees|publisher=Emergency Nurses Association|access-date=8 December 2016|date=May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420151710/http://www.ena.org/SiteCollectionDocuments/Position%20Statements/AppropriateCredential.pdf|archive-date=20 April 2015|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

The American Medical Association launched a campaign in 2011 for states to adopt "truth in advertising" legislation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ama-assn.org/truth-advertising|title=Truth in Advertising|access-date=9 December 2016|publisher=American Medical Association}}</ref> As a result, many states now have laws in place that protect the title of doctor when offering medical services.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.healthcarebusinesstech.com/truth-in-advertising-legisation/|title='Truth in Advertising' legislation for providers growing in popularity|date=19 October 2012|author=Renee Cocchi|work=Healthcare Business & Technology|access-date=9 December 2016|publisher=Catalyst Media Network}}</ref> In some jurisdictions, the use of the title in health care is limited to those who have both a doctorate and are licensed to practice medicine, and there is a requirement that the field of the doctorate be disclosed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oregon.gov/omb/licensing/Documents/mddodpm/mddo-dr-title-law.pdf|title=Doctor Title Law ORS 676.100 TO ORS 676.140|website=Oregon Medical Board|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030221448/http://www.oregon.gov/omb/licensing/Documents/mddodpm/mddo-dr-title-law.pdf|archive-date=30 October 2014|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>[http://www.op.nysed.gov/prof/slpa/speechguidedoctor.htm NYS Speech-Language Pathologists & Audiologists:Practice Guidelines: Using the Title "doctor"] NYSED.gov</ref> Some other jurisdictions require the practitioner to hold a doctorate and to disclose the field, but make no stipulations as to licensing.<ref>[http://www.lrc.state.ky.us/KRS/311-00/375.PDF 311.375 Conditions governing use of title "Doctor" or "Dr." – Penalty.] Kentucky law</ref> Some states require name badges to be worn in medical facilities giving first name, licensure status, and staff position, although these laws may not explicitly address the use of the title "Doctor".<ref>[http://www.mass.gov/legis/laws/mgl/111-70e.htm General Laws: CHAPTER 111, Section 70E]. Mass.gov (30 June 2009). Retrieved on 2011-12-17.</ref>

Although lawyers in the United States do not customarily use the title, the law degree in that country is the [[Social:Juris Doctor|Juris Doctor]], a professional doctorate.<ref name="Ethics Opinion 1969-5">Association of American Universities Data Exchange. [http://www.pb.uillinois.edu/aaude/documents/graded_glossary.doc Glossary of Terms for Graduate Education] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304000000/http://www.pb.uillinois.edu/aaude/documents/graded_glossary.doc |date=4 March 2009 }}. Accessed 26 May 2008; National Science Foundation (2006). "[https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf06312/nsf06312.pdf Time to Degree of U.S. Research Doctorate Recipients] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308130032/https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf06312/nsf06312.pdf |date=March 8, 2016 }}," "InfoBrief, Science Resource Statistics" NSF 06-312, 2006, p. 7. (under "Data notes" mentions that the JD is a professional doctorate); San Diego County Bar Association (1969). [http://www.sdcba.org/ethics/ethicsopinion69-5.html "Ethics Opinion 1969-5"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030411105023/http://www.sdcba.org/ethics/ethicsopinion69-5.html |date=11 April 2003 }}. Accessed 26 May 2008. (under "other references" discusses differences between academic and professional doctorate, and statement that the J.D. is a professional doctorate); University of Utah (2006). [http://www.gradschool.utah.edu/catalog/degree.php University of Utah – The Graduate School – Graduate Handbook] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626081148/http://www.gradschool.utah.edu/catalog/degree.php |date=26 June 2008 }}. Accessed 28 May 2008. (the JD degree is listed under doctorate degrees); German Federal Ministry of Education. [http://www.blk-bonn.de/papers/hochschulsystem_usa.pdf "U.S. Higher Education / Evaluation of the Almanac Chronicle of Higher Education"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325000000/http://www.blk-bonn.de/papers/hochschulsystem_usa.pdf |date=25 March 2009 }}. Accessed 26 May 2008. (report by the German Federal Ministry of Education analysing the Chronicle of Higher Education from the U.S. and stating that the JD is a professional doctorate); Encyclopædia Britannica. (2002). "Encyclopædia Britannica", 3:962:1a. (the JD is listed among other doctorate degrees).</ref> Some JD holders in the United States use the title of doctor in professional situations, although ethics board decisions have varied on whether this is permissible or might mislead the public into believing the lawyer was medically qualified or had a PhD.<ref name="law.cornell.edu">American Bar Association. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/ethics/aba/mcpr/MCPR.HTM Model Code of Professional Responsibility], Disciplinary Rule 2–102(E). Cornell University Law School, LLI. Accessed 10 February 2009</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Peter H. Geraghty|url=http://www.abanet.org/media/youraba/200709/ethics.html|title=Are There Any Doctors Or Associates In the House?|publisher=American Bar Association|date=2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708231553/http://www.abanet.org/media/youraba/200709/ethics.html|archive-date=8 July 2008|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is also sometimes used by JD holders in academic situations.<ref name="Profile of Dr. Michael Harrington">{{cite web|website=University of Montana School of Business Administratio|url=http://www.business.umt.edu/Faculty/harrington|title=Profile of Dr. Michael Harrington|publisher=University of Montana|date=2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060912040411/http://www.business.umt.edu/Faculty/harrington/|archive-date=12 September 2006|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 2011, ''Mother Jones'' published an article claiming that [[Biography:Michele Bachmann|Michele Bachmann]] was misrepresenting her qualifications by using the "bogus" title Dr. based on her JD. The article was later amended to note that the use of the title by lawyers "is a (begrudgingly) accepted practice in some states and not in others", although they maintained that it was rarely used as it "suggests that you're a medical doctor or a Ph.D.—and therefore conveys a false level of expertise".<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2011/08/michele-bachmann-not-doctor-phd|title=Michele Bachmann Is Not a Doctor|magazine=Mother Jones|author=Tim Murphy|date=18 August 2011}}</ref>

Ecclesiastical seminaries and entitled churches award their own doctorates in the United States, e.g. the ''Doctor of Religious Science'' (Dr. sc. rel.), the ''[[Social:Doctor of Divinity|Doctor of Divinity]]'' (DD), the ''[[Social:Doctor of Biblical Studies|Doctor of Biblical Studies]]'' (DBS) or the ''Doctor of Metaphysics'' (Dr. mph.). These titles are most commonly awarded to meritorious clerics for their outstanding work or another achievement in the field of religious and biblical studies.<ref>David F. Wells (1985): Reformed Theology in America: A History of Its Modern Development. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, Grand Rapids</ref><ref>{{cite book|first = E. Brooks|last = Holifield |date = 2005|title = Theology in America|publisher = Yale University Press|isbn = 9780300107654}}</ref><ref>Mark G. Toulouse; James O. Duke: Sources of Christian Theology in America. Abingdon Press</ref>

American professional doctorates are not generally considered doctoral level degrees internationally, instead being classified as bachelor's or master's level. The ISCED mapping for these degrees, developed collaboratively between the US and [[Organization:UNESCO|UNESCO]], places them at master's level. As a result, holders of MD, JD, PharmD, etc. may not be permitted to use the title of Doctor in countries such as Germany where this is strictly controlled.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://internacional.ipvc.pt/sites/default/files/Reconhecimento%2520de%2520qualifica%25C3%25A7oes_EN.pdf|title=Recognition of Qualifications|page=49|access-date=18 September 2016|publisher=NARIC Portugal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711103735/http://internacional.ipvc.pt/sites/default/files/Reconhecimento%20de%20qualifica%C3%A7oes_EN.pdf|archive-date=11 July 2018|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.epnuffic.nl/en/publications/find-a-publication/education-system-united-states.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180901215849/https://www.epnuffic.nl/en/publications/find-a-publication/education-system-united-states.pdf |archive-date=2018-09-01 |url-status=live|publisher=NUFFIC|page=3|title=The American education system described and compared with the Dutch system|access-date=18 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eua.be/eua/jsp/en/upload/Review%2520of%2520Professional%2520Doctorates_Ireland2006.1164040107604.pdf|publisher=National Qualifications Authority of Ireland|page=3|title=Review of Professional Doctorates|date=October 2006|quote=The '1st professional degree' is a first degree, not a graduate degree even though it incorporates the word 'doctor' in the title|access-date=7 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110103934/http://www.eua.be/eua/jsp/en/upload/Review%2520of%2520Professional%2520Doctorates_Ireland2006.1164040107604.pdf|archive-date=10 January 2017|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/ISCEDMappings/Documents/ISCED%202011%20Mappings/ISCED_2011_Mapping_EN_USA.xlsx|title=ISCED 2011 Mappings – United States|publisher=[[Organization:UNESCO|UNESCO]]|access-date=7 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bleedle.net/legal-use-of-foreign-doctor-titles-the-german-example/|title=Legal use of foreign doctor titles – the German example|access-date=7 December 2016|publisher=Bleedle}}</ref>

===Europe===
In the European Union, the title of ''doctor'' refers primarily to holders of post-graduate research doctorates, such as the PhD. In many European languages the term ''doctor'' is distinct from a medical practitioner, which can be referred to as e.g. ''läkare'' in Swedish, ''Arzt'' in German, ''dokter'' or ''arts'' in Dutch, or ''lääkäri'' in Finnish.

Standardisation of degrees into the three cycles of bachelor's–master's–doctorate across the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) is being carried out through the Bologna process, although not all EHEA member states have fully conformed to the 1999 Bologna declaration in favour of their own historic customs. With respect to the title "doctor", the Bologna process makes no prescriptions regarding the names of degrees nor the titles they may confer. However, under the [[Organization:Lisbon Recognition Convention|Lisbon Recognition Convention]], recognition of a foreign degree allows "the use of an academic title, subject to the laws and regulations of the country in which recognition is sought".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enic-naric.net/the-lisbon-recognition-convention.aspx|title=The Lisbon Recognition Convention|website=Enic-Naric|access-date=26 February 2017}}</ref> According to the ''Explanatory report'', this means that: "The competent authorities of the Parties may grant the right to use the title in the exact form in which it was awarded in the Party concerned or in any other form. They may alternatively grant the right to use the corresponding title of the country in which recognition is sought."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=09000016800cb34b|title=Explanatory Report to the Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region|date=11 April 2011|access-date=26 February 2017|publisher=Council of Europe}}</ref>

====Austria====
In Austria, the degree ''Doktor'' is granted to holders of research degrees (ISCED 8) with a denoting Latin particle being added (''Dr. techn.'', ''Dr. phil.'', ''Dr. rer. nat.'', ''Dr.iur.'', ''Dr.theol.'' etc.). Newer study programmes award a PhD, but these exist alongside the older degrees since many prefer obtaining a ''Dr.'' to a PhD.<ref>[https://www.oesterreich.gv.at/themen/leben_in_oesterreich/titel_und_auszeichnungen/1/2.html Akademische Grade]. help.gv.at (30 November 2011) Retrieved on 2011-12-17.</ref> These degrees take 3–4 years full-time and are organised in doctoral schools.

In addition, the academic degree ''Doktor'' (ISCED 7) is granted to physicians (Dr. med. univ.) and dentists (Dr. med. dent.), who since 2002 do not obtain doctoral degrees (ISCED 8) but instead follow a master's level six-year training (360 ECTS) programme, similar to an American [[Medicine:Doctor of Medicine|MD]] or [[Social:Dental degree|DDS]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ris.bka.gv.at/Dokumente/Bundesnormen/NOR40109748/NOR40109748.pdf|title=Universitätsgesetz 2002 |language=German|trans-title=University Act 2002|access-date=17 January 2024}}</ref> For these degrees, students have to write a ''Diplomarbeit'' thesis of 50-100 pages. Research doctorates in medicine (Dr. scient. med. or PhD) can also be obtained after a three year full-time post-graduate study programme at a medical university.

All doctors may be addressed as "Doktor _____"; the title is usually contracted to "Dr. _____", oftentimes they are just addressed as "Herr/Frau Doktor" (Mr/Ms Doctor), omitting the family name unless they are being introduced to someone.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.schreibwerkstatt.co.at/2012/12/25/der-umgang-mit-akademischen-graden/| title = Anrede und Anschrift| date = 28 January 2013}}</ref>

Contrary to popular belief in the country, the title "Dr." is not part of a person's name or a specific honour but simply a degree like BSc/BA, ''Mag'' (MA/MSc) or ''Dipl.-Ing.'' (MEng). It is not mandatory to use it, although it may be added to official documents (e.g. driver's licence, passport), if desired<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.oesterreich.gv.at/themen/leben_in_oesterreich/titel_und_auszeichnungen/1/Seite.1730506.html| title = Führung von Titel und Auszeichnungen}}</ref>

====Finland====
In Finland, the title of ''tohtori'' or ''doktor'' denotes holder of a research doctorate comparable to a PhD. Getting the doctorate requires advanced studies after the master's degree, writing a [[Thesis|thesis]], nowadays often a thesis by publication, and publicly defending the thesis. Customary doctorates do not exist even in the field of medicine: physicians hold the degree of ''lääketieteen lisensiaatti'' ([[Social:Licentiate (degree)|Licentiate]] of Medicine), and are referred to simply as ''lääkäri'' (physician); "tohtori" would be rustic or old-fashioned. A research doctorate in medicine, ''lääketieteen tohtori'', requires further research work and a separate doctoral thesis, and is not taken by all medical graduates. Regardless, in Finnish usage, the use of titles is uncommon and restricted to only the most formal of contexts.

====France====

In {{wipe|France}}, the title of ''Docteur'' is only used generally for [[Medicine:Physician|physician]]s (''médecin'') but can also be used by holders of research doctorates. Medical professionals do not normally hold a [[Social:Doctorate|doctorate]], which in France always refers to a research doctorate, but a "State Diploma of Doctor of Medicine" (''Diplôme d'État de docteur en médecine'').<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vocabulaire-medical.fr/encyclopedie/035-docteur-medecin|title=Un médecin est toujours " docteur " ; un " docteur " n'est pas nécessairement un médecin|language=fr|work=Vocabulaire médical|access-date=18 December 2016}}</ref>

The law in France allows the title of Dr to be used professionally by holders of research doctorates, with the field of their speciality being mentioned after the name.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/eli/loi/2013/7/22/2013-660/jo/article_78|title=LOI n° 2013-660 du 22 juillet 2013 relative à l'enseignement supérieur et à la recherche|at=TITRE VI : LES PERSONNELS DE L'ENSEIGNEMENT SUPÉRIEUR ET DE LA RECHERCHE Article 78|website=Legifrance|publisher=Government of France|language=fr}}</ref> The courts have ruled that stating the specialisation is not necessary except in circumstances specifically related to professional practice; at other times the title alone may be used.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opimed.org/spip.php?article108|title=Du bon usage du titre de docteur|date=27 June 2008|access-date=18 December 2016|work=OpiMed|publisher=MediaMed|language=fr}}</ref> The courts have also determined that questioning the right of the holder of a research doctorate to use the title Dr is a form of libel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://m.hervecausse.info/Le-titre-de-docteur-n-appartient-pas-aux-medecins--N-est-pas-docteur-qui-veut-et-qui-l-est-a-son-honneur--Mise-au_a249.html|title=Le titre de "docteur" n'appartient pas aux médecins! N'est pas "docteur" qui veut et qui l'est a son honneur! Mise au point sur le titre de docteur ou l'histoire d'une méprise publique avec la médecine (Cass. crim. 20 janvier 2009, n° 07-88122)|author=Hervé Causse|language=fr|access-date=18 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305051516/http://m.hervecausse.info/Le-titre-de-docteur-n-appartient-pas-aux-medecins--N-est-pas-docteur-qui-veut-et-qui-l-est-a-son-honneur--Mise-au_a249.html|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The National Union of Hospital Scientists (''Syndicat National des Scientifiques Hospitaliers'') launched a campaign in 2015 to raise awareness of the right of scientists to use the title.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blogsnsh.wordpress.com/2015/02/18/usage-du-titre-de-docteur-science-qui-peut-utiliser/|title=Usage du titre de Docteur|publisher=Syndicat National des Scientifiques Hospitaliers|access-date=18 December 2016|date=18 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221181804/https://blogsnsh.wordpress.com/2015/02/18/usage-du-titre-de-docteur-science-qui-peut-utiliser/|archive-date=21 December 2016}}</ref>

====Germany====
In [[Social:German language|German language]]-speaking countries, the word ''Doktor'' refers to a doctorate awardee in formal language (similar to a PhD). It is distinct from ''Arzt'', since a doctoral degree is not a requirement for medical practitioners, though colloquial use of the word ''Doktor'' for physician is common and ordinary people often incorrectly assume that only Doktors may practice medicine. For this reason, 80% of all students in medicine write "doctoral" dissertations, often comparable to a master's thesis in science,<ref name="Beisiegel791">U. Beisiegel: ''Promovieren in der Medizin. Die Position des Wissenschaftsrates.'' In: ''Forschung & Lehre'' 7/09, 2009, S.&nbsp;491. {{cite web |url=http://www.forschung-und-lehre.de/wordpress/Archiv/2009/07-2009.pdf |title=Forschung und Lehre 7/09 |language=de |access-date=2015-05-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150609080050/http://www.forschung-und-lehre.de/wordpress/Archiv/2009/07-2009.pdf |archive-date=2015-06-09 }}</ref> alongside their undergraduate studies to obtain a Dr. med. degree. The European Research Council decided in 2010 that those Dr. med. doctorates do not meet the international standards of a PhD research degree.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sueddeutsche.de/bildung/qualitaet-medizinischer-promotionen-kommt-ein-doktor-zum-arzt--1.2673150|work=Süddeutsche Zeitung|date=1 October 2015|title=Kommt ein Doktor zum Arzt ...|author=Sarah Schmidt}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/lebenundlernen/uni/von-der-leyen-in-der-kritik-schlechte-promotionen-sind-in-der-medizin-ueblich-a-1055039.html|title=Akademische Ramschware|work=Der Spiegel|date=28 September 2015|author=Bernd Kramer}}</ref>

In {{wipe|Germany}}, the most common doctoral degrees are ''Dr. med.'' (medicine), ''Dr. med. dent.'' (dentistry), ''Dr. med. vet.'' (veterinary medicine), ''Dr. rer. nat.'' (natural sciences), ''Dr. phil.'' (humanities), ''Dr. iur.'' (law), ''Dr. rer. pol.'' (economic and political sciences, also as Dr. rer. oec. in Switzerland), ''[[Social:Doktoringenieur|Dr.-Ing.]]'' (engineering), and ''Dr. theol.'' (theology). All holders of doctoral degrees are appropriately addressed as "Herr/Frau Dr. _____" in all social situations.

In Germany, double doctorates are indicated in the title by ''"Dr. Dr."'' or ''"DDr."'' and triple doctorates as ''"Dr. Dr. Dr."'' or ''"DDDr."'' More doctorates are indicated by the addition of ''"mult."'', such as ''"Dr. mult."'' Honorary titles are shown with the addition of ''"h.c."'', which stands for ''"honoris causa"''. Example: ''"Dr. h.c. mult."'' Some honorary titles are shown by addition of German equivalents of ''"h.c."'', like ''"e.h."'', ''"E.h."'', or ''"eh."'', which stand for ''"ehrenhalber"'' (honorary). Example: ''"Dr. e.h. mult."''

All people holding a doctorate from an EU member state are, since 2001, entitled to use "Doctor" or "Dr." in all formal, legal and published communications without any further addenda. For academics with doctorates from non-EU member states, the qualification must be recognised formally ("validated") by the Federal Educational Ministry in Bonn. The recognition process can be done by the employer or employee and may be part of the official bureaucracy for confirming professional status and is dependent on individual bilateral agreements between Germany and other countries and, since 2007, the Lisbon Recognition Convention.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.anerkennung-in-deutschland.de/html/en/lisbon_convention.php |title=Lisbon Convention|website=Recognition in Germany|publisher=Federal Ministry of Education and Research|access-date=26 February 2017}}</ref> An example of mutual recognition of Doctor titles among EU countries is the "Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994", signed between Germany and Spain (prior to the general recognition of EU doctorates).<ref>[http://www.boe.es/g/es/bases_datos/doc.php?coleccion=iberlex&id=1995/12243&codmap= Boletín Oficial del Estado. Texto del Documento] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219025837/http://www.boe.es/g/es/bases_datos/doc.php?coleccion=iberlex&id=1995%2F12243&codmap= |date=19 December 2008 }}. Boe.es (24 May 1995). Retrieved on 2011-12-17.</ref>

In 2008, The Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany extended their 2001 decision to recognise EU PhDs to cover PhDs that were awarded in Australia, Israel, Japan, Canada, and some American universities. It was announced in 2012 that this would be further extended to cover PhDs awarded in New Zealand. PhDs that were awarded in the United States are recognized if the awarding institution is classified by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching as a "Research University (high research activity)" or as a "Research University (very high research activity)." Permission to use the title covers only scientific research degrees and does not extend to professional degrees such as the MD or JD.<ref>{{cite web| title = Führung ausländischer Hochschulgrade| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150211223335/http://www.kmk.org/wissenschaft-hochschule/internationale-hochschulangelegenheiten/fuehrung-auslaendischer-hochschulgrade.html| archive-date = 11 February 2015| url = http://www.kmk.org/wissenschaft-hochschule/internationale-hochschulangelegenheiten/fuehrung-auslaendischer-hochschulgrade.html| url-status = dead| df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kmk.org/fileadmin/veroeffentlichungen_beschluesse/2001/2001_09_21-Auslaendische-HS-Grade.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211223335/http://www.kmk.org/fileadmin/veroeffentlichungen_beschluesse/2001/2001_09_21-Auslaendische-HS-Grade.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 February 2015|title=Vereinbarung der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland über begünstigende Regelungen gemäß Ziffer 4 der "Grundsätze für die Regelung der Führung ausländischer Hochschulgrade im Sinne einer gesetzlichen Allgemeingenehmigung durch einheitliche gesetzliche Bestimmungen vom 14.04.2000" (Beschluss der Kultusministerkonferenz vom 21.09.2001 i. d. F. vom 26.06.2014)|access-date=15 November 2016|language=de|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/health/6783089/Germany-goes-for-the-doctor-on-our-PhDs|title=Germany goes for the doctor on our PhDs|author=Michelle Duff
|date=21 April 2012|work=Stuff|publisher= Fairfax New Zealand Limited }}</ref>

====Greece====
In Greece, doctor "Διδάκτωρ" (''didáktor'') is indicated in the title as Δρ and it is used for holders of doctoral degrees. Other alternative names are also used, namely «δόκτωρ» and «δόκτορας», derived from the French "docteur". The term "Ιατρός" (''iatrós'') indicates medical practitioners.

====Hungary====

In Hungary, graduates of six-year medical schools (''dr. med.''), five-year dentistry schools (''dr. med. dent.''), five-year law schools (''dr. jur.'') and five-year veterinary medical schools (''dr. vet.'') receive the title of a ''doctor'' at the end of their studies, after completing and successfully defending their thesis; their undergraduate studies must have lasted for a minimum of three years. Completing a PhD research programme (or DLA in arts and music) also leads to the doctor title. Since 2008, also those who graduated of five-year [[Chemistry:Pharmacy|pharmacy]] schools have the right to use the title "dr" (''dr. pharm.'').

A large part of Hungarians with doctor titles received their titles for research in the old academic system before PhD was introduced in Hungary. Since the introduction of PhD title (1993), the ''dr. univ'' title (given before 1993). The CSc ''Candidate of Science'' title was a scientific title in the old academic system and is now treated as an equivalent of PhD. CSc titles were awarded by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.

The highest level doctoral degree in Hungary is DSc ''Doctor of Sciences'', awarded by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. It is also called ''Doctor of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences''.

The title of doctor used to become a part of the name and was added as such to personal identity documents. This practice is still common and graduates after receiving their diploma would usually change their personal documents in order to officially indicate the achievement.

====Ireland====
Usage in Ireland is similar to that in the UK. The title of doctor is used for holders of doctoral degrees<ref>{{cite news|url=http://rsvpmagazine.ie/right-now-focus-phd-aoibhinn-ni-shuilleabhain-takes-tv-career-break-put-studies-first/|title="RIGHT NOW I HAVE TO FOCUS ON THE PHD": AOIBHINN NÍ SHÚILLEABHÁIN TAKES TV CAREER BREAK TO PUT STUDIES FIRST|quote=she will soon be able to add the title of Doctor to her name|work=RSVP Magazine|date=2014|access-date=4 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025021802/https://rsvpmagazine.ie/right-now-focus-phd-aoibhinn-ni-shuilleabhain-takes-tv-career-break-put-studies-first/|archive-date=25 October 2017|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> as well as for medical practitioners (except surgeons),<ref>{{cite journal|title= Do surgeons wish to become doctors?|quote= Around the world, medical professionals of all disciplines enjoy the status of being addressed as `doctor'. In contrast, most surgeons in the UK are addressed as Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms. A small number of countries including Ireland and parts of Australia and New Zealand retain this dichotomy of titles for physicians and surgeons|journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine|date=April 2006|volume= 99| issue=4|pages= 197–199|doi=10.1177/014107680609900419|author1= N Ibery|author2= P M Patel|author3= P J Robb|pmc=1420777|pmid=16574973}}</ref> dentists,<ref>{{cite news|title= Call me doctor|work= The Dentist|date= 1 October 2010|author= Nilesh Patel|quote= In Ireland, the contrast in policy would be even more striking as dentists south of the border will still be able to retain the title of doctor, but if a patient moves north of the border, their dentist will be addressed differently!|url= http://www.the-dentist.co.uk/article/393|publisher= George Warman Publications Ltd|access-date= 8 December 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171024153935/http://www.the-dentist.co.uk/article/393|archive-date= 24 October 2017|url-status= dead|df= dmy-all}}</ref> and vets.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.thejournal.ie/ireland-doctors-vets-new-animals-2696672-Apr2016/|title= It's taken a long time, but vets can finally call themselves 'Dr'|date=4 April 2016|work=TheJournal.ie|author= Michael Sheils McNamee|publisher= Journal Media }}</ref> The title is also used in Ireland for Catholic bishops, who are styled "The Most Reverend Dr X, Bishop of Y" on envelopes.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E4oCDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT172|page=172|title=Debrett's Handbook|author=Elizabeth Wyse|publisher=Debrett's|date= 19 April 2016|isbn=9780992934866}}</ref>

====Italy====
The first university of Western civilization, the [[Organization:University of Bologna|University of Bologna]], is located in Italy, where until modern times the only degree granted was that of the doctorate,<ref name="Catholic Encyclopedia">Herbermann, et al. (1915). [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05072b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]. New York: Encyclopedia Press. Accessed 26 May 2008.</ref> and all other Italian universities followed that model. During the 20th century Italian universities introduced more advanced research degrees, such as the PhD, and now that it is part of the EU [[Organization:Bologna Process|Bologna Process]], a new three-year first degree, or "laurea" (equivalent to a BA of other countries, [[Social:European Qualifications Framework|EQF]] & ISCED 2011 Level 6), has been introduced. The old-style "laurea" is now known as "laurea magistrale/specialistica" (Bologna Process second cycle/[[Social:European Qualifications Framework|EQF]] & ISCED 2011 Level 7). For historical reasons, even to this day, the title of "dottore/dottoressa" (abbrev. both as dott/dott.ssa or as dr./dr.ssa ) is awarded even to those who have studied for a "laurea"([[Social:European Qualifications Framework|EQF]] & ISCED 2011 Level 6). Upper levels of degree are anyway shown in the title, as those who obtain a master's degree can be referred to as "dottore/dottoressa magistrale" (''masterly doctor'', [[Social:European Qualifications Framework|EQF]] & ISCED 2011 Level 7) while those who achieve the relatively new program of "dottorato di ricerca" (research doctorate, equivalent of a ''PhD'' in English-speaking or ''Doktor'' (''Dr.'') in German-speaking Countries, [[Social:European Qualifications Framework|EQF]] & ISCED 2011 Level 8), carry the title of "dottore/dottoressa di ricerca" (research doctor), which can be abbreviated as "Dott. Ric." or "Ph.D."<ref>L. n. 240 – 30 December 2010, G.U. n. 10–14 January 2011, Art. 8-bis.</ref>

====Malta====
In Malta, the title of Doctor is used by academic doctors (with PhDs), medical practitioners, dentists and lawyers. Its use by lawyers is due to the qualifying degree for practicing law having been the [[Social:Legum Doctor|LLD]] until reforms in 2014, and has been described as "historical baggage" by the Dean of the [[Organization:University of Malta|University of Malta]]'s law school. Lawyers do not generally use the title when practicing outside of Malta.<ref>{{cite news|work=Times of Malta|date=11 January 2014|author= Ivan Martin|title=I am not a doctor, so why call myself one?|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20140111/local/-I-am-not-a-doctor-so-why-call-myself-one-.502162}}</ref>

====Netherlands====
In the [[Social:Dutch language|Dutch language]] the word "dokter" refers to a physician, whereas "doctor" refers to the academic title. The doctor title is abbreviated as dr. placed before the holders name (note the lowercase).

To enter a Dutch doctoral defense, the candidate must hold a validated master's degree (a master's degree of an acknowledged university, or a master equivalent degree validated on a case-by-case basis by the Dutch government). In some cases the candidate can be granted special dispensation if no master's degree is held.
There is no specific notation of the discipline in which the doctorate is obtained. Once the doctorate is obtained the preceding master's degree is generally no longer reported. Exceptions only exist for the disciplines with specific master titles of engineering "ir." ("ingenieur", i.e. Engineer) and law "mr." ("meester", i.e. Master of Law) where the title dr. is added to the original master title. For these disciplines, the original master's degree abbreviation is combined with the dr. abbreviation thus resulting in for example "dr. ir. Familyman". The dr. title is always placed in front of the ir. title. In the case of a PhD in law, the original mr. title is placed before the dr. title (mr. dr., see e.g. Jan Peter Balkenende). For a person having a law master's degree, but holding a PhD in another field than law the mr. title is placed after the dr. title (dr. mr.). No specific notation or title for the medical disciplines exists in the Netherlands. Although a physician is usually referred to as "dokter" (note the spelling difference) this does not necessarily imply the physician holds a doctoral degree; nor does it give the physician a title equivalent to that of PhD.

Confusion can be caused by the original Dutch Master level title "drs." (for all non-engineering and non-law master's degrees). This abbreviation stands for the Dutch title [[Social:Doctorandus|doctorandus]] Latin for "he who should become a doctor" (female form is "doctoranda"). Dutch drs. should not be confused with the plural 'doctorates': having multiple PhDs. Once a doctorate is achieved the doctorandus is promoted to doctor, and no longer uses the drs. abbreviation.<br />
Stacking of multiples titles of the same level, as seen in countries like for example Germany (Dr. Dr. Dr. Musterfrau) is highly uncommon in the Netherlands (although stacking of titles with different levels is common: prof. dr. ir. Appelmans). Those who have multiple doctor titles may use dr.mult. before their name, although this is rarely used.

After obtaining a doctorate successfully, Dutch doctors may bear either the title dr. (lower case) before, or the letter D (rarely in practice) behind their name, but not both simultaneously. In the Netherlands, Academic titles are used exclusively within academia. Holding a doctorate has become a standard requirement for a university career. The doctor title has little to no meaning or implications for public life outside academia. It cannot be added to documentation (e.g. passport, drivers licence), and is used infrequently in daily practice.

Historically, the Netherlands used their own academic degree nomenclature, but for many years now have recognised and implemented the Bologna declaration. In everyday practice, the Anglo Saxon titles (e.g. PhD) are frequently used. Dutch academic titles and degrees are legally protected, and as of 2021 the traditional ’dr.’ and the PhD are legally equivalent and can be used interchangeably. Doctoral degrees (PhD degrees) can only be granted by recognised (research) universities. Illegal use of the title is considered a misdemeanour and subject to legal prosecution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001854/DerdeBoek/TitelII/Artikel435/geldigheidsdatum_21-10-2009 |title=Art. 435 Sr |language=nl |publisher=Wetten.overheid.nl |date=21 October 2009 |access-date=8 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://translate.google.nl/translate?prev=hp&js=y&u=http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001854/DerdeBoek/TitelII/Artikel435/geldigheidsdatum_21-10-2009&sl=nl&tl=en&history_state0=&swap=1 |title=Art. 435 Sr (translated by Google) |language=nl |publisher=Translate.google.nl|access-date=8 July 2010}}</ref>

====Portugal====
In Portugal, up to recent times after the completion of an undergraduate degree – except in architecture and [[Engineering:Engineering|engineering]] – a person was referred to as ''doutor (Dr.) – male'' or ''doutora (Dra.) – female''. The architects and engineers were referred by their professional titles: ''arquitecto'' (Arq.) and ''engenheiro'' (Eng.). Nurses are also referred to as "nurse", ''enfermeiro'' (male) or ''enfermeira'' (female), the title being ''Enf.'' for both.

Nowadays Portugal is a signatory to the Bologna process and according to the current legislation the title of Doctor (''doutor, doutora'') is reserved for graduate holders of an academic [[Social:Doctorate|doctorate]].<ref>Decreto-Lei n.º 107/2008, de 25 de Junho</ref> Professions such as [[Medicine:Physician|physician]]s, [[Social:Attorney at law|attorneys]], [[Medicine:Pharmacist|pharmacist]]s, veterinarians, and few others are usually referred to by the title Dr. (doutor) even if they have not been awarded a doctoral degree.

However, custom gives the legislation little strength and most graduates use the Dr. title in its abbreviated form, although use of the full ''Doutor'' is normally restricted to those with doctorates. Those who are both holders of an academic doctorate and Professors at a college level are generally referred to as ''Professor Doutor''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.university.pt/phd-in-portugal/|title=PhD in Portugal|website=University.pt|access-date=17 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220173333/http://www.university.pt/phd-in-portugal/|archive-date=20 December 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

====Spain====
The social standing of Doctors in Spain is evidenced by the fact that only PhD holders, Grandees and Dukes can take seat and cover their heads in the presence of the King.<ref>{{in lang|es}} [http://www.protocolo.org/gest_web/proto_Seccion.pl?rfID=459&arefid=2871&pag=8 Raíces de las normas y tradiciones del protocolo y ceremonial universitario actual: las universidades del Antiguo Régimen y los actos de colación. Protocolo y Etiqueta]. Protocolo.org. Retrieved on 17 December 2011.</ref>

PhD Degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (RD 1393–2007),<ref>[http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2007/10/30/pdfs/A44037-44048.pdf MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN Y CIENCIA]. 30 October 2007. (PDF, in Spanish) . Retrieved on 17 December 2011.</ref> ''Real Decreto'' (in [[Social:Spanish language|Spanish]]). They are granted by the university on behalf of the King, and its Diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a national database of doctoral theses called TESEO.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.educacion.gob.es/teseo/teseo/abrirAyuda.do|title= Tesis doctorales: TESEO|language=es|access-date=9 December 2016|website=Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte|publisher=Governors de Espsña}}</ref> Any person who uses the Spanish title of ''doctor/doctora'' (or ''Dr./Dra.'') without being included in this Government database can be prosecuted for fraud.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} However, the Spanish Royal Academy recognises that it is used colloquially to describe physicians, even without doctoral degrees, as well as (in the feminine form, ''doctora'', abbreviated ''Dra.'') the wives of doctors (i.e. holders of doctoral degrees) and medics, as well as "women who shine with wisdom and understanding".<ref>{{cite book|url=http://dle.rae.es/?id=E3TMkYQ|title=doctor, ra|publisher=Real Academia Espanola|work=Diccionario de la lengua española|edition=23rd|date=October 2014|access-date=9 December 2016}}</ref>

Unlike other countries, until recently Spain has registered a comparatively small number of Doctor degree holders, but the tendency is changing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eldiario.es/cienciacritica/Doctorado-ciencia-fraude-doctor-medico_6_110648947.html|title=El significado y la importancia de ser doctor|date=14 March 2013 }}</ref> According to the Spanish Statistical Office (INE), less than 5% of MSc degree holders are admitted to PhD programs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ine.es/dynt3/inebase/index.htm?type=pcaxis&path=/t14/p225/a2009&file=pcaxis&L=0|title=Instituto Nacional de Estadística. (National Statistics Institute)|website=INE}}</ref> This reinforces the prestige that Doctors have historically enjoyed in Spain's society.

====United Kingdom====

Doctor is commonly used in the {{wipe|United Kingdom}} as the title for a person who has received a doctoral degree or, as courtesy title, for a qualified medical practitioner or dentist who does not have a doctorate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095724299|title=Doctor|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|work=Oxford Reference|access-date=15 May 2017}}</ref> There are no restrictions on the use of the title "Doctor" in the {{wipe|United Kingdom}}, except where, in commercial advertising, it might imply that the user holds a general medical qualification.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cap.org.uk/Advice-Training-on-the-rules/Advice-Online-Database/Use-of-the-term-Dr.aspx#.V99DB2UXZSA|title=Use of the term "Dr"|publisher=The Committees of Advertising Practice|access-date=18 September 2016}}</ref> The UK government allows medical doctors and holders of doctorates to have the title recorded on the observations page of their UK passport.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/observations-in-passports|title=Observations in passports|date=7 February 2012|publisher=HM Passport Office}}</ref> The lack of legal restrictions was confirmed in Parliament in 1996 by health minister Gerald Malone, who noted that the title doctor had never been restricted by law to either medical practitioners or those with doctoral degrees in the UK, although the titles "physician, doctor of medicine, licentiate in medicine and surgery, bachelor of medicine, surgeon, general practitioner and apothecary" were protected.<ref>Hansard, 19 January 1996. [https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199596/cmhansrd/vo950119/debtext/60119-24.htm Columns: 1064–1069]. retrieved 7 March 2015</ref>

According to the etiquette guide, [[Company:Debrett's|Debrett's]], holders of doctoral degrees and medical doctors (but not surgeons) should be addressed as "Doctor".<ref name="Debrett's Academic">{{cite web| url=https://www.debretts.com/expertise/forms-of-address/professions/|title=Academics|publisher=Debrett's|access-date=2 March 2019}}</ref><ref name="Debrett's Doctor">{{cite web| url=https://www.debretts.com/expertise/forms-of-address/professions/medicine-2/|title=Medicine|publisher=Debrett's|access-date=2 March 2019}}</ref> For medical doctors, "Doctor" is a professional title rather than an academic one: it is due to their being a medical practitioner rather than their having gained a doctoral degree.<ref name="Debrett's Medicine">{{cite web|url=http://www.debretts.com/expertise/forms-of-address/professions/medicines/|title=Medicine|publisher=Debrett's|access-date=18 September 2016}}</ref> The Quality Assurance Agency states that "The use of the title 'Dr' by medical doctors is a historical abbreviation for the profession; it does not indicate a qualification at doctoral level".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/qualifications-frameworks.pdf|page=29|publisher=Quality Assurance Agency|access-date=1 October 2016|date=October 2014|title=The Frameworks for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305083730/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/qualifications-frameworks.pdf|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> On guest lists and seating plans for formal events, holders of academic doctorates (but not medical doctors or other people using the title as a courtesy title) are listed either as "Dr John Smith" or "John Smith, Esq, PhD", while untitled men (other than those holding doctorates) are shown as either "Mr John Smith" or "John Smith, Esq" (as appropriate to ensure the styling remains consistent).<ref group=note>No example is given for untitled women, either holding doctorates or otherwise</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.debretts.com/expertise/etiquette/formal-events/seating-plans-and-precedence/|title=Seating plans and precedence|at=Untitled Men|publisher=Debrett's|access-date=14 May 2017}}</ref> The title "Dr" is also used on [[Biology:Visiting card|visiting card]]s.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E4oCDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT418|title=Debrett's Handbook|pages=418–420|author=Elizabeth Wyse|publisher=Debrett's|date=19 April 2016|isbn=9780992934866}}</ref>

Medical students in the UK normally complete a course of study leading to the degree of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS, BMBS or MBChB).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bma.org.uk/-/media/files/pdfs/developing%20your%20career/becoming%20a%20doctor/badentry2014%20-%20interactiveversionfinal.pdf |title=Becoming a doctor: Entry in 2014 |publisher=British Medical Association (BMA) |access-date=21 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402130110/http://bma.org.uk/-/media/files/pdfs/developing%20your%20career/becoming%20a%20doctor/badentry2014%20-%20interactiveversionfinal.pdf |archive-date=2 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The MD degree is not a qualifying degree in the UK, but can be either a professional doctorate  (at the same academic level as a PhD), a doctorate by thesis, or a higher doctorate, depending on the university.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/publications/information-and-guidance/publication?PubID=2975#.V98_VWUXZSA|title=Doctoral Degree Characteristics Statement|publisher=Quality Assurance Agency|date=September 2015|access-date=4 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119235547/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/publications/information-and-guidance/publication?PubID=2975#.V98_VWUXZSA|archive-date=19 January 2018|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> To be eligible for an MD degree in the UK one must already hold an entry level medical degree (for example, MBBS, MBChB, BMed, or a North American MD degree) and usually must have had at least 5 years of postgraduate training and experience. Trainee doctors are permitted to use the title Doctor once they have started their post-graduation "Foundation Programme".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bma.org.uk/-/media/files/word%20files/news%20views%20analysis/pressbriefing_medical%20training%20uk.doc|title=Medical Training in the UK|date=28 September 2012|publisher=British Medical Association|access-date=20 September 2016|quote=Individuals in F1 posts receive a salary and are allowed to use the courtesy title 'Dr'.}}</ref>

Debrett's states that medical doctors (except surgeons) should be addressed on envelopes as "Dr (full name), (medical qualifications)", e.g. "Dr John Smith, MD", "Dr Anne Jones, MB BS, FRCP", "Dr David Evans, MB ChB", contrary to the normal rule of not mixing titles and post-nominals. Surgeons (and dentists, if not holding a doctoral degree) should be "(full name), Esq, (medical/dental qualifications)",{{NoteTag|Debrett's gives no examples of the form for addressing a woman who is a surgeon or dentist; usual British practice is only to use "Esq" for men<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/esquire|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226145400/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/esquire|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 December 2016|title=Esquire|work=Oxford Living Dictionaries|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|access-date=14 May 2017}}</ref>}} e.g. "John Smith, Esq, MS, FRCS", "David Evans, Esq., BDS", but "Dr Anne Jones, DDS, FDS RCS",. By contrast, those holding (non medical or dental) doctoral degrees, if not surgeons, should be "Dr (full name)" without post-nominals on envelopes, e.g. "Dr John Smith".<ref name="Debrett's Medicine"/><ref name="Debrett's Academics">{{cite web|url=https://www.debretts.com/expertise/forms-of-address/professions/|title=Academics|access-date=1 December 2016|publisher=[[Company:Debrett's|Debrett's]]}}</ref>

A & C Black's ''Titles and Forms of Address'' diverges from Debrett's on how to address envelopes to medical doctors, omitting the pre-nominal title of Dr (e.g. John Smith, Esq, MD; John Smith, MD; John Smith, MB)  except in Scotland and for general practitioners, where the post-nominals are instead usually omitted (e.g. Dr John Smith). Black's also state that it is down to individual choice whether non-medical doctors are addressed on envelopes as "Dr John Smith" or "John Smith, Esq, PhD" (or appropriate letters for the doctorate held), with the exception of doctors of divinity, who would be "The Rev. J. Smith, DD" on the envelope and "Reverend Sir" in a formal salutation (informally in the salutation "Dear Dr Smith", and "Dr Smith" in speech).<ref group=note>Black's notes that non-clergy may be awarded DDs but gives no examples</ref><ref group=note>Black's give no examples of addressing women with doctoral degrees or medical qualifications</ref><ref name="Black's">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=10jOCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA145|title=Titles and Forms of Address: A Guide to Correct Use|edition=23rd|publisher=A & C Black, an imprint of [[Company:Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury Publishing]]|pages=145–147|date=21 April 2016|isbn=9781472924346}}</ref>

The custom of not referring to surgeons (members and fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons) as Dr has been commented on in the ''British Medical Journal'' and may stem from the historical origins of the profession such as that some barbers also used to function as surgeons.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Dobson | first1 = Roger | year = 2005 | title = English surgeons may at last be about to become doctors| journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 330 | issue = 7500| page = 1103| pmid = 15891216 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.330.7500.1103 | pmc = 557881 }}</ref> In 2005, the then-president of the Royal College of Surgeons called upon surgeons to use the title of Dr, saying that the use of Mr or Miss was confusing to patients.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1489293/Surgeons-should-be-called-Dr-says-president.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1489293/Surgeons-should-be-called-Dr-says-president.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|work=The Daily Telegraph|title=Surgeons should be called Dr, says president|date=4 May 2005|author=Celia Hall}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Black's note that gynaecologists are addressed as surgeons in England and Wales but as doctors elsewhere.<ref name="Black's" />

In a similar manner to the medical MBBS, dentists qualify with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS) and vets with a [[Social:Bachelor of Veterinary Science|Bachelor of Veterinary Science]] (BVSc), Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine (BVetMed) or [[Social:Bachelor of Veterinary Science|Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery]] (BVMS). All of these are, like the MBBS, master's level qualifications that bear bachelor's designations for historical reasons.<ref name=FHEQ>{{cite web|pages=17–18, 29|url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/qualifications-frameworks.pdf|title=The Frameworks for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies|publisher=Quality Assurance Agency|date=November 2014|access-date=21 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305083730/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/qualifications-frameworks.pdf|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Dentists have traditionally (as dental surgeons) been referred to in the same way as surgeons, but since 1995 the General Dental Council have permitted dentists to use the title "Doctor",<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/dentist-can-take-title-of-doctor-1583239.html|work=The Independent|date=22 November 1995|author=Liz Hunt|title=Dentist can take title of doctor}}</ref> though many do not choose to do this, thereby stressing their surgeon status. However, Debrett's continues to advises that dentists are normally addressed as surgeons and that the title "Doctor" is usually only used for dentists who have a doctoral degree.<ref name="Debrett's Medicine"/>

On 5 March 2015 the council of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (RCVS) voted to permit its members to use the courtesy title of "Doctor". Guidance from the RCVS says the title should be used either with the description "veterinary surgeon"   or the postnominals "MRCVS" to ensure there is no confusion with doctors of human medicine or holders of doctoral degrees.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.rcvs.org.uk/news-and-events/news/uk-veterinary-surgeons-to-use-courtesy-doctor-title/ |title=UK veterinary surgeons to use courtesy 'Doctor' title |publisher=Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons |date=6 March 2015 |access-date=4 April 2015}}</ref>

Optometrists are not permitted to use the title "Doctor" based on their initial qualification (BOptom or BSc (Optom)).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.whatdotheyknow.com/request/58119/response/146821/attach/html/3/I%20Chong%20response%20letter.pdf.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170411054231/https://www.whatdotheyknow.com/request/58119/response/146821/attach/html/3/I%20Chong%20response%20letter.pdf.html |archive-date=2017-04-11 |url-status=live|website=Whatdotheyknow.com|title=REQUEST UNDER THE FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT Reference No F-2011-01 |author=Lisa Sparkes |date=1 February 2011|access-date=10 April 2017}}</ref>  Optometrists can earn PhDs or Doctor of Optometry degrees (in the UK a PhD-level qualification for qualified optometrists with experience in practice<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.school-it.co.uk/doptometry/article.htm|publisher=Institute of Optometry|title=Doctor of Optometry|access-date=10 April 2017}}</ref>). Ophthalmologists are fully qualified medical doctors. However, ophthalmology is considered a branch of surgery, thus ophthalmologists, like other surgeons in the UK, do not use the title "Doctor".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rcophth.ac.uk/patients/frequently-asked-questions-faqs/|publisher=Royal College of Ophthalmologists|access-date=10 April 2017|title=Frequently Asked Questions}}</ref>

The General Chiropractic Council permits registered chiropractors to use the title "Doctor", although it advises chiropractors to avoid using the title in advertising or, if they do, to spell out that they are "Doctors of Chiropractic".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gcc-uk.org/registration/information-for-chiropractors-who-are-on-the-register/guidance-for-registrants-using-their-registered-name-and-the-gcc-registration-number.aspx#Can%20chiropractors%20use%20the%20title%20'Dr'%20when%20advertising?|title=Using your registered name and GCC registration number|publisher=General Chiropractic Council|access-date=20 September 2016}}</ref> The Committee of Advertising Practice advises, however, that "references to 'DC' or 'doctor of chiropractic' are unlikely to dispel that misleading impression [of being a medical practitioner], when used in conjunction with unqualified references to the prefix 'Dr{{' "}}, saying that the use of the title by chiropractors may be acceptable in advertising if "clearly and prominently qualified with additional text which makes clear it is a courtesy title and that the practitioner does not hold a general medical qualification".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.asa.org.uk/advice-online/use-of-the-term-dr-chiropractors.html|title=Use of the term "Dr": Chiropractors|date=23 May 2016|access-date=14 April 2017|publisher=Advertising Standards Authority}}</ref>

The Advertising Standards Authority has ruled that practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine should not use the title doctor in adverts unless they hold a general medical qualification and are registered with the General Medical Council.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cap.org.uk/Advice-Training-on-the-rules/Advice-Online-Database/Use-of-the-term-Dr-Chinese-Medicine-Practitioners.aspx#.WCu1gugXZSB|title=Use of the term "Dr": Chinese Medicine Practitioners|publisher=The Committees of Advertising Practice|access-date=15 November 2016}}</ref> It similarly advises that [[Medicine:Osteopath|osteopath]]s should not use the title unless holding a general medical qualification.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.asa.org.uk/advice-online/health-osteopathy.html|title=Health: Osteopathy|date=2 December 2016|at=Can I call myself a "Doctor"?|access-date=14 April 2017|publisher=Advertising Standards Authority}}</ref> There have also been rulings that an advert for an [[Medicine:Osteomyology|osteomyologist]] which referred to him as a doctor was misleading, as was an advert which used the title "Dr" and the post-nominals "PhD" on the basis of a PhD from an [[Social:Unaccredited institutions of higher education|unaccredited university]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.asa.org.uk/advice-online/health-osteomyology.html|title=Health: Osteomyology|date=3 August 2015|access-date=14 April 2017|publisher=Advertising Standards Authority}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.asa.org.uk/rulings/caring-4-u-uk-ltd-a13-232156.html|title=ASA Adjudication on Caring 4 U (UK) Ltd|date=23 October 2013|quote=We therefore concluded that without a qualification to state that the degree was from an unaccredited US university, the use of the "Dr" and "PhD" title in the ad was misleading.|access-date=14 April 2017|publisher=Advertising Standards Authority}}</ref>

Holders of honorary doctorates in the UK have the right, in most cases, to use the title of Doctor, although holders are encouraged to refrain from doing so.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-34659751|title=Doctor who? The celebrities who became instant academics|author=Lauren Potts|publisher=BBC|website=BBC News|date=22 November 2015}}</ref> Black's says that "The same rules apply as to other holders", although notes that the post-nominals would not normally be used.<ref name="Black's" />

In some circumstances, "doctor" may be used on its own as a form of address rather than as a title before a name. This is limited to when the person is being addressed by their job title and so is only used for medical doctors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/people-and-places/names-and-titles-addressing-people|title=Names and titles: addressing people|work=English Grammar Today|publisher=Cambridge University Press|access-date=26 March 2017}}</ref>

=====Wales=====

Wales follows UK usage in English. In [[Social:Welsh language|Welsh]], the holder of a doctoral degree is ''doethur'' while a medical doctor is ''doctor'' or ''meddyg''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geiriadur.net/index.php?page=ateb&uni=y&prefLang=&term=doctor+%28academic%29&direction=ew&whichpart=exact&type=noun|title=doctor (academic)|work=Geiriadur: Welsh-English / English-Welsh On-line Dictionary|publisher=[[Organization:University of Wales Trinity Saint David|University of Wales Trinity Saint David]]|access-date=4 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geiriadur.net/index.php?page=ateb&uni=y&prefLang=&term=doctor+of+medicine&direction=ew&whichpart=exact&type=noun|title=doctor of medicine|work=Geiriadur: Welsh-English / English-Welsh On-line Dictionary|publisher=[[Organization:University of Wales Trinity Saint David|University of Wales Trinity Saint David]]|access-date=4 December 2016}}</ref> The title "''y Doethur''" is used by those holding doctorates, e.g. "y Doethur Brinley Jones",<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cambrian-news.co.uk/article.cfm?id=100464&headline=Lampeter&sectionIs=news&searchyear=2015|language=cy|title=Lampeter|work=Cambrian News|date=17 November 2015}}</ref> "y Doethur John Elfed Jones",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/cymru/deddwyrain/papurau_bro/yr_hogwr/newyddion/hydref07.shtml|title=Pererinion Pen-y-bont|publisher=BBC|language=cy|date=7 November 2014|access-date=4 December 2016}}</ref> which can be abbreviated "Dr".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uwtsd.ac.uk/cy/newyddion-a-digwyddiadau/datganiadau-ir-wasg/wasg-2016/dathlu-cyfleoedd-addysgol-newydd-yn-aberteifi.html|title=Dathlu cyfleoedd addysgol newydd yn Aberteifi|publisher=[[Organization:University of Wales Trinity Saint David|University of Wales Trinity Saint David]]|date=21 March 2016|access-date=4 December 2016|language=cy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220045908/http://www.uwtsd.ac.uk/cy/newyddion-a-digwyddiadau/datganiadau-ir-wasg/wasg-2016/dathlu-cyfleoedd-addysgol-newydd-yn-aberteifi.html|archive-date=20 December 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Medical doctors use, as in English, the title "Doctor", also abbreviated "Dr".

====Former Yugoslavia====

In countries that were formerly Yugoslavian republics, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia the title formally belongs to holders of academic doctoral degree such as [[Social:Doctor of Science|doctor of science]] (dr. sc.) or doctor of arts (dr. art.) degree. There is no "Ph.D." in any of those countries, even though when holders are translating their dr. sc. degree to English, they nevertheless use "Ph.D.", even though it should be "D.Sc." or "Sc.D.".

Informally, the title, in both its full and abbreviated form (i.e. "dr.") is used honorifically to address medical doctors even in more formal environment like in lectored media texts, however officially it is reserved only for the holders of academic degrees. Formally the professional title for medical doctor is "lijekar" in Bosnian and [[Organization:Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]], "liječnik" in Croatian, "lekar/лекар" in [[Social:Macedonian language|Macedonian]] and [[Social:Serbian language|Serbian]] and "zdravnik" in Slovenian and they can hold different academic degrees, as well as additional honorific title of ''Primarius'' that is given to distinguished specialists with exemplary reputation and achievements.

===Oceania===

====Australia====
With the introduction of National Health Practitioner registration legislation on 1 July 2010, the title "doctor" is not restricted in any Australian state. The title "medical practitioner" is restricted for use by registered medical practitioners, while the title "doctor" is not restricted by law.<ref>[http://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/LEGISLTN/ACTS/2009/09AC045.pdf Health Practitioner Regulation National Law Act 2009]. Queensland. legislation.qld.gov.au</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://ama.com.au/use-title-'doctor' |archive-url= https://archive.today/20140114142025/https://ama.com.au/use-title-%E2%80%98doctor%E2%80%99 |url-status= dead |archive-date= 14 January 2014 |title= Use of the title 'Doctor' |author= <!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date= 20 May 2011 |website= Australian Medical Association |access-date= 14 January 2014 }}</ref> Despite this, the Medical Board of Australia advises that practitioners who are not medical practitioners who choose to use the title 'Doctor' (or 'Dr') should clearly state their profession in advertisements, even if they hold a PhD or another doctoral degree, e.g. 'Dr Smith (Dentist)' or 'Dr Jones (Chiropodist)'. The Psychology Board of Australia prohibits psychologists from using the title, to avoid confusion with psychiatrists, unless they hold a doctoral degree, in which case they must make it clear that they are not a medical practitioner or psychiatrist, e.g. by putting '(Psychologist)' after their name.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medicalboard.gov.au/Codes-Guidelines-Policies/Guidelines-for-advertising-regulated-health-services.aspx|title=Guidelines for advertising regulated health services|publisher=Medical Board of Australia|access-date=2 April 2017}}</ref> The [[Organization:Australian Qualifications Framework|Australian Qualifications Framework]] (AQF) defines doctoral degrees as being at Level 10 of the framework; it specifies that: "Individuals who have been awarded a Doctoral Degree at Level 10 on the AQF are entitled to use the title 'Doctor'. The title 'Doctor' will not be used by those who hold an honorary award."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aqf.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/AQF-2nd-Edition-January-2013.pdf|page=73|title=Australian Qualifications Framework|edition=2nd|date=January 2013|publisher=Australian Qualifications Framework Council|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910151628/http://www.aqf.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/aqf-2nd-edition-january-2013.pdf|archive-date=10 September 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The name 'Doctor' is also used in the name of some extended master's degrees at Level 9 (e.g. [[Social:Juris Doctor|Juris Doctor]] and [[Medicine:Doctor of Medicine|Doctor of Medicine]]); these are not considered doctoral degrees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aqf.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/AQF-Addendum-2014.pdf|title=Addendum to AQF Second Edition January 2013|date=March 2014|page=7|publisher=Australian Qualifications Framework Council|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220022220/http://www.aqf.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/AQF-Addendum-2014.pdf|archive-date=20 December 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==Abbreviation==
Doctor is abbreviated "Dr" in British English and "Dr." in North American English. The plural abbreviation is "Drs".

===British usage===
In British English it is not necessary to indicate an abbreviation with a full stop after the abbreviation, when the first and last letters of the abbreviation are the same as for the unabbreviated word, i.e. the abbreviation is a contraction, as in the case for "'''D'''octo'''r'''".<ref>[http://www.informatics.sussex.ac.uk/department/docs/punctuation/node28.html Abbreviations]. Informatics.sussex.ac.uk. Retrieved on 17 December 2011. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221170014/http://www.informatics.sussex.ac.uk/department/docs/punctuation/node28.html |date=21 February 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/when-you-need-periods-after-abbreviations| title = When You Need Periods After Abbreviations {{!}} Grammar Girl| date = 14 July 2023}}</ref>

In the {{wipe|United Kingdom}}, it is normal also to omit stops from postnominal letters, thus the usual abbreviation for "Doctor of Philosophy" is "PhD" (or "DPhil", where this is used). The fully punctuated "Ph.D." or "D.Phil." is anachronistic and, where the abbreviated form of the degree is defined by regulation rather than custom (e.g. Oxford), may be technically incorrect.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/regulations/307-072.shtml|title=Regulations for Degrees, Diplomas, and Certificates|publisher=University of Oxford|access-date=15 November 2016}}</ref>

===American usage===
American English makes no distinction between abbreviations that are contractions and abbreviations that are not. A period is used: the abbreviation of Doctor is usually written as "Dr." in North America.<ref>[http://www.chambersharrap.co.uk/chambers/features/chref/chref.py/main?query=dr&title=21st&sourceid=Mozilla-search Chambers Reference Online]. Chambersharrap.co.uk. Retrieved on 17 December 2011.</ref> However, the US Postal Service prefers punctuation to be omitted from addresses.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://pe.usps.gov/text/pub28/28c2_007.htm|title=Punctuation|work= Publication 28 – Postal Addressing Standards|publisher=US Postal Service|date=May 2015|access-date=18 December 2016}}</ref>

==Honorary doctorates==
{{Main|Social:Honorary degree}}
An honorary doctorate is a doctoral degree awarded for service to the institution or the wider community.  It may also be awarded for outstanding achievement in a particular field.  This service or achievement does not need to be academic in nature. Often, the same set of degrees is used for higher doctorates, but they are distinguished as being ''honoris causa'': in comprehensive lists, the lettering used to indicate the possession of a higher doctorate is often adjusted to indicate this, for example, "Hon ScD", as opposed to the earned research doctorate "ScD". The degrees of Doctor of the University (DUniv) and [[Social:Doctor of Humane Letters|Doctor of Humane Letters]] (DHL), however, are only awarded as honorary degrees.

By convention, recipients of honorary doctorates do not use the title "Dr" in general correspondence, although in formal correspondence from the university issuing the honorary degree it is normal to address the recipient by the title.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://honorarydegrees.wvu.edu/history|title=The Honorary Degree|publisher=[[Organization:West Virginia University|West Virginia University]]|quote=[H]onorary degree recipients should not refer to themselves as "Doctor", nor should they use the title on business cards or in correspondence. However, the recipient is entitled to use the appropriate honorary abbreviation behind his or her name|access-date=14 March 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150330034606/http://honorarydegrees.wvu.edu/history|archive-date=30 March 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.formsofaddress.info/Degree_Honorary.html|title=How to Address Those With Honorary Degrees|publisher=Protocol School of Washington|access-date=14 March 2015}}</ref> However, this social convention is not always scrupulously observed; notable people who defied social convention and used the honorary prefix include:

* [[Biography:Benjamin Franklin|Benjamin Franklin]], who received honorary master's degrees from [[Organization:Harvard University|Harvard]] and [[Organization:Yale University|Yale]] in 1753, and from The College of William and Mary in 1756,<ref>[http://scrc.swem.wm.edu/wiki/index.php/Honorary_degree_recipients Honorary degree recipients] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705165157/http://scrc.swem.wm.edu/wiki/index.php/Honorary_degree_recipients |date=5 July 2008 }} on the Special Collections Research Center Wiki</ref> and doctorates from the [[Organization:University of St Andrews|University of St Andrews]] in 1759 and the [[Organization:University of Oxford|University of Oxford]] in 1762 for his scientific accomplishments.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/news/archive/2002/title,42559,en.php|title=Permanent tribute to Benjamin Franklin|date=29 October 2002|publisher=University of St Andrews|access-date=26 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427194001/https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/news/archive/2002/title,42559,en.php|archive-date=27 April 2017|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-10-02-0040|title=Oxford University: Record of Degree of Doctor of Civil Law, 30 April 1762|publisher=Archives.gov|access-date=26 April 2017}}</ref> He thereafter referred to himself as "Doctor Franklin".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SIQPyABjJiYC&pg=PA47|page=47|title=Benjamin Franklin: Inventing America
|author= Edwin S. Gaustad|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]], USA|date=16 September 2004|isbn=9780195157321}}</ref>
* Maya Angelou, who held many honorary doctorates, called herself and was referred to by many as "Dr. Angelou" despite holding no undergraduate or advanced (non-honorary) degree.<ref>{{cite web |title=Biography |url=http://mayaangelou.com/bio |website=mayaangelou.com |date=5 December 2016 }}</ref>
* Booker T. Washington was often referred to as "Dr. Washington" after receiving an honorary doctorate from [[Organization:Dartmouth College|Dartmouth College]].{{citation needed|date=July 2014}}
* Sukarno, President of Indonesia, was awarded twenty-six honorary doctorates from various international universities including [[Organization:Columbia University|Columbia University]], the [[Organization:University of Michigan|University of Michigan]], the University of Berlin, the [[Organization:Al-Azhar University|Al-Azhar University]], the University of Belgrade, the Lomonosov University and many more. And also from domestic universities including the Universitas Gadjah Mada, the Universitas Indonesia, the [[Organization:Bandung Institute of Technology|Bandung Institute of Technology]], and the Universitas Padjadjaran. He had often been referred to by Indonesian Government at the time as 'Dr. Ir. Sukarno',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tatanusa.co.id/tapmpr/67TAPMPRS-XXXIII.pdf |title=KETETAPAN MAJELIS PERMUSYAWARATAN RAKYAT SEMENTARA REPUBLIK INDONESIA No.XXXIII/MPRS/1967 TENTANG PENCABUTAN KEKUASAAN PEMERINTAH NEGARA DARI PRESIDEN SUKARNO |access-date=7 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813071935/http://tatanusa.co.id/tapmpr/67TAPMPRS-XXXIII.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> combined with his degree in architecture (Ir.) from [[Organization:Bandung Institute of Technology|Bandung Institute of Technology]]. Sukarno is the president with the highest number of honorary doctorates in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jelajahunik.us/2010/04/soekarno-presiden-dengan-26-gelar.html|title=Sukarno, Presiden dengan 26 Gelar Honoris Causa|publisher=jelajahunik.us|date=April 2010|access-date=7 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908024005/http://www.jelajahunik.us/2010/04/soekarno-presiden-dengan-26-gelar.html|archive-date=8 September 2013|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
* Author and [[Social:Lexicography|lexicographer]] Samuel Johnson, who had some years earlier been unable (due to financial considerations) to complete his undergraduate studies at Pembroke College, Oxford, was awarded the degree of Master of Arts by diploma in 1755, in recognition of his scholarly achievements.<ref>{{cite journal |title=About Samuel Johnson|url=http://www.thesamueljohnsonprize.co.uk/node/340|journal=The Samuel Johnson Prize|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150516004826/http://www.thesamueljohnsonprize.co.uk/node/340 |archive-date =16 May 2015}}</ref>  In 1765, Trinity College Dublin awarded him the degree of Doctor of Laws<ref name=Johnson2>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Dr. Johnson|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/305432/Samuel-Johnson/14771/Dr-Johnson|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|first = Robert|last = Folkenflik|date = 14 September 2018}}</ref> and in 1775 Oxford bestowed upon him the degree of [[Social:Doctor of Civil Law|Doctor of Civil Law]] by diploma.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Brute Johnson: A Critical Look at the Life of Dr. Samuel Johnson, L.L.D.|url=http://www.hamiltoninstitute.com/brute-johnson-a-critical-look-at-the-life-of-dr-samuel-johnson-l-l-d/|journal=Hamilton Institute|date = 12 August 2008}}</ref>  He never referred to himself as "Dr. Johnson", even though a degree by diploma is distinct from an honorary degree, but it was used by his contemporaries and in his biography by James Boswell.<ref name=Johnson2/><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.ox.ac.uk/gazette/1996-7/weekly/300197/news/story_2.htm|title= Herzog and Heaney set for Encaenia|date=1997|publisher=[[Organization:Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170922030448/http://www.ox.ac.uk/gazette/1996-7/weekly/300197/news/story_2.htm|archive-date= 22 September 2017}}</ref>

==Other uses of "doctor"==
* In some regions, such as the Southern United States, "Doctor" is traditionally added to the first name of people holding doctorates, where it is used in either direct or indirect familiar address. {{Citation needed|date=August 2008}}
* "Doc" is a common nickname for someone with a doctoral degree, in real life and in fiction — for example, the gunfighter Doc Holliday, the Australian politician H.V. "Doc" Evatt, the character "Doc" in ''Gunsmoke'', and pulp hero Doc Savage.
* In Roman Catholicism and several other Christian denominations, a [[Religion:Doctor of the Church|Doctor of the Church]] is an eminent [[Religion:Theology|theologian]] (for example, Saint Thomas Aquinas, also known as the Angelic Doctor) from whose teachings the whole Church is held to have derived great advantage.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05075a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia – Doctors of the Church]. Newadvent.org. Retrieved on 17 December 2011.</ref>
* African leaders often refer to themselves as "Doctor" as part of their title upon assuming office.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33245094|title=Letter from Africa: Our presidents are addicted to titles|work=BBC News|author=Elizabeth Ohene|date=30 June 2015|access-date=30 June 2015}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Engineering:Ijazah|Ijazah]]
* Postdoc

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.bclaws.ca/EPLibraries/bclaws_new/document/ID/freeside/27_33_2009#section3 The Use of Dr. in British Columbia law for Optometrists]
*[http://iga.in.gov/legislative/laws/2020/ic/titles/024/#24-5-0.5-12 Indiana usage of Dr. title] SECTION 1. IC 24-5-0.5–12 IS
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160305041541/http://net.jogtar.hu/jr/gen/getdoc2.cgi?dbnum=1&docid=99900168.KOR&cel=P(3) use of Dr. title in names in Hungary]
*[https://www.jstor.org/stable/604423 Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West by George Makdisi].   


{{DEFAULTSORT:Doctor (Title)}}
[[Category:Professional titles and certifications]]
[[Category:Doctoral degrees]]

{{Sourceattribution|Doctor (title)}}