View source for Physics:Nickel–hydrogen battery

{{Short description|Type of rechargeable battery}}
{{Infobox battery
|image=[[File:Nickel-hydrogen battery NASA.gif|180px]]
|caption= Schematics of a nickel-hydrogen battery
|EtoW={{nowrap|55-75 W·h/kg}}<ref name=Linden02/><ref name=Miller>[http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-851-satellite-engineering-fall-2003/lecture-notes/l3_scpowersys_dm_done2.pdf Spacecraft Power Systems Pag.9]</ref>
|EtoS=~{{nowrap|60 W·h/L}}<ref name=Miller/>
|PtoW=~{{nowrap|220 W/kg}}<ref name="NASA/CR—2001-210563/PART2 -Pag.10">[http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/2001/CR-2001-210563-PART2.pdf NASA/CR—2001-210563/PART2 -Pag.10] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219191837/http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/2001/CR-2001-210563-PART2.pdf |date=2008-12-19 }}</ref>
|CD={{nowrap|>20,000 cycles}}<ref name="ieeexplore.ieee.org">[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/103781 Five-year update: nickel hydrogen industry survey]</ref>
|CtoDE=85%
}}

A '''nickel–hydrogen battery''' (NiH<sub>2</sub> or Ni–H<sub>2</sub>) is a rechargeable electrochemical power source based on [[Chemistry:Nickel|nickel]] and [[Chemistry:Hydrogen|hydrogen]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.che.sc.edu/faculty/weidner/Publications/Weidner_JPS_141_326.pdf |title=A simplified physics-based model for nickel hydrogen battery |access-date=2008-10-25 |archive-date=2016-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183648/http://www.che.sc.edu/faculty/weidner/Publications/Weidner_JPS_141_326.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> It differs from a [[Chemistry:Nickel–metal hydride battery|nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) battery]] by the use of [[Chemistry:Hydrogen|hydrogen]] in gaseous form, stored in a pressurized [[Chemistry:Electrochemical cell|cell]] at up to 1200&nbsp;[[Pounds per square inch|psi]] (82.7&nbsp;[[Bar (unit)|bar]]) pressure.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071208082627/http://www.nasa.gov/offices/oce/llis/0704.html Nickel-hydrogen spacecraft battery handling and storage practice]</ref> The nickel–hydrogen battery was patented on February 25, 1971 by Alexandr Ilich Kloss and Boris Ioselevich Tsenter in the United States.<ref>[https://www.google.com/patents/US3669744 Hermetically sealed nickel-hydrogen storage cell US Patent 3669744]</ref>

NiH<sub>2</sub> cells using 26% [[Chemistry:Potassium hydroxide|potassium hydroxide]] (KOH) as an [[Physics:Electrolyte|electrolyte]] have shown a [[Social:Service life|service life]] of 15 years or more at 80% [[Engineering:Depth of discharge|depth of discharge]] (DOD)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://pdf.aiaa.org/jaPreview/JPP/1996/PVJAPRE24119.pdf |title=Potassium hydroxide electrolyte for long-term nickel-hydrogen geosynchronous missions |access-date=2008-10-25 |archive-date=2009-03-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318050756/http://pdf.aiaa.org/jaPreview/JPP/1996/PVJAPRE24119.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Physics:Energy density|energy density]] is 75&nbsp;Wh/kg, 60&nbsp;Wh/dm<sup>3</sup><ref name="Miller" /> [[Engineering:Power-to-weight ratio|specific power]] 220&nbsp;W/kg.<ref name="NASA/CR—2001-210563/PART2 -Pag.10">[http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/2001/CR-2001-210563-PART2.pdf NASA/CR—2001-210563/PART2 -Pag.10] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219191837/http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/2001/CR-2001-210563-PART2.pdf |date=2008-12-19 }}</ref> The [[Physics:Open-circuit voltage|open-circuit voltage]] is 1.55&nbsp;[[Volt|V]], the average voltage during discharge is 1.25&nbsp;V.<ref>[http://theses.gla.ac.uk/373/01/2008AsifPhD.pdf Optimization of spacecraft electrical power subsystems -Pag.40]</ref>

While the energy density is only around one third as that of a [[Engineering:Lithium-ion battery|lithium battery]], the distinctive virtue of the nickel–hydrogen battery is its long life: the cells handle more than 20,000 [[Engineering:Charge cycle|charge cycle]]s<ref name="ieeexplore.ieee.org">[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/103781 Five-year update: nickel hydrogen industry survey]</ref> with 85% [[Physics:Energy conversion efficiency|energy efficiency]] and 100% faradaic efficiency.

NiH<sub>2</sub> [[Engineering:Rechargeable battery|rechargeable batteries]] possess properties which make them attractive for the [[Engineering:Energy storage|energy storage]] of electrical energy in satellites<ref>[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19940023606_1994023606.pdf Ni-H<sub>2</sub> Cell Characterization for INTELSAT Programs]</ref> and [[Engineering:Space probe|space probe]]s. For example, the [[Astronomy:International Space Station|ISS]],<ref>[http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/GLTRS/browse.pl?2002/TM-2002-211803.html Validation of International Space Station electrical performance model via on-orbit telemetry] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218035344/http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/GLTRS/browse.pl?2002%2FTM-2002-211803.html |date=2009-02-18 }}</ref> Mercury Messenger,<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/168019main_MESSENGER_71504_PressKit.pdf NASA.gov]</ref> [[Astronomy:2001 Mars Odyssey|Mars Odyssey]]<ref>[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1035418 A lightweight high reliability single battery power system for interplanetary spacecraft]</ref> and the [[Astronomy:Mars Global Surveyor|Mars Global Surveyor]]<ref>[http://www.astronautix.com/craft/marveyor.htm Mars Global Surveyor] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090810180658/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/marveyor.htm |date=2009-08-10 }}</ref> are equipped with nickel–hydrogen batteries. The [[Astronomy:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]], when its original batteries were changed in May 2009 more than 19 years after launch, led with the highest number of [[Engineering:Charge cycle|charge and discharge cycles]] of any NiH<sub>2</sub><ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/servicing/SM4/main/Battery_FS_HTML.html Hubble space telescope servicing mission 4 batteries]</ref> battery in [[Astronomy:Low Earth orbit|low Earth orbit]].<ref>[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1392024 NiH<sub>2</sub> reliability impact upon Hubble Space Telescope battery replacement]</ref>

== History ==

The development of the nickel hydrogen battery started in 1970 at Comsat<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pdf.aiaa.org/jaPreview/JE/1982/PVJAPRE62569.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318050754/http://pdf.aiaa.org/jaPreview/JE/1982/PVJAPRE62569.pdf|archive-date=2009-03-18|title=Nickel-Hydrogen Battery Technology—Development and Status|access-date=2012-08-29}}</ref> and was used for the first time in 1977 aboard the U.S. Navy's Navigation technology satellite-2 (NTS-2).<ref>[http://www.aiaa.org/content.cfm?pageid=406&gTable=japaperimportPre97&gID=57704 NTS-2 Nickel-Hydrogen Battery Performance 31] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090810200734/http://www.aiaa.org/content.cfm?pageid=406&gTable=japaperimportPre97&gID=57704|date=2009-08-10}}</ref> Currently, the major manufacturers of nickel-hydrogen batteries are Eagle-Picher Technologies and [[Company:Johnson Controls|Johnson Controls, Inc.]]

==Characteristics==
[[File:218582main Batt FS img1 lg.jpg|thumb|Nickel-hydrogen batteries for [[Astronomy:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble]]<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/servicing/SM4/main/Battery_FS_HTML.html Hubble Space Telescope Servicing Mission 4 Batteries]</ref>]]
The nickel-hydrogen battery combines the positive nickel electrode of a nickel-cadmium battery and the negative electrode, including the catalyst and gas diffusion elements, of a [[Physics:Fuel cell|fuel cell]]. During discharge, hydrogen contained in the pressure vessel is oxidized into water while  the  nickel oxyhydroxide electrode is reduced to nickel hydroxide. Water is consumed at the nickel electrode and produced at the hydrogen electrode, so the concentration of the potassium hydroxide electrolyte does not change. As the battery discharges, the hydrogen pressure drops, providing a reliable state of charge indicator. In one communication satellite battery, the pressure at full charge was over 500 pounds/square inch (3.4 MPa), dropping to only about 15 PSI (0.1 MPa) at full discharge.

If the cell is over-charged, the oxygen produced at the nickel electrode reacts with the hydrogen present in the cell and forms water; as a consequence the cells can withstand overcharging as long as the heat generated can be dissipated.{{dubious|date=December 2013}}

The cells have the disadvantage of relatively high self-discharge rate, i.e. chemical reduction of Ni(III) into Ni(II) in the cathode:

:<chem>NiOOH + 1/2H2 <=> Ni(OH)2.</chem>

which is proportional to the pressure of hydrogen in the cell; in some designs, 50% of the capacity can be lost after only a few days' storage. Self-discharge is less at lower temperature.<ref name=Linden02>David Linden, Thomas Reddy (ed.) ''Handbook of Batteries Third Edition'', McGraw-Hill, 2002 {{ISBN|0-07-135978-8}} Chapter 32, "Nickel Hydrogen Batteries"</ref>

Compared with other rechargeable batteries, a nickel-hydrogen battery provides good [[Physics:Specific energy|specific energy]] of 55-60&nbsp;watt-hours/kg, and very long cycle life (40,000 cycles at 40% DOD) and operating life (> 15 years) in satellite applications. The cells can tolerate overcharging and accidental polarity reversal, and the hydrogen pressure in the cell provides a good indication of the state of charge. However, the gaseous nature of hydrogen means that the volume efficiency is relatively low (60-100&nbsp;Wh/L for an IPV (individual pressure vessel) cell), and the high pressure required makes for high-cost pressure vessels.<ref name=Linden02/>

The positive electrode is made up of a dry sintered<ref>[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19980237948_1998394779.pdf  Performance comparison between NiH<sub>2</sub> dry sinter and slurry electrode cells]</ref> porous nickel plaque, which contains nickel hydroxide. The negative [[Chemistry:Hydrogen|hydrogen]] [[Physics:Electrode|electrode]] utilises a teflon-bonded [[Physics:Platinum black|platinum black]] [[Chemistry:Catalyst|catalyst]] at a loading of 7&nbsp;mg/cm2 and the separator is knit [[Chemistry:Zirconium dioxide|zirconia]] cloth (ZYK-15 Zircar).<ref>[http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=3086#_Zirconia_Cloth_Battery_Separators] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080817030425/http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=3086|date=2008-08-17}}.</ref><ref>[http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/electricity/batteries/nickelhydrogen.html Nickel-Hydrogen Batteries]</ref>

The Hubble replacement batteries are produced with a wet slurry process where a binder agent and powdered metallic materials are [[Engineering:Molding (process)|molded]] and heated to boil off the liquid.<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/252457main_FS_Batteries.pdf Hubble space telescope servicing mission 4 batteries]</ref>

==Designs==
* Individual pressure vessel (IPV) design consists of a single unit of NiH<sub>2</sub> cells in a pressure vessel.<ref>[http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/GLTRS/browse.pl?1994/TM-106795.html Nickel hydrogen batteries-an overview] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090412050505/http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/GLTRS/browse.pl?1994%2FTM-106795.html |date=2009-04-12 }}</ref>
* Common pressure vessel (CPV) design consist of two NiH<sub>2</sub> cell stacks in series in a common pressure vessel. The CPV provides a slightly higher [[Physics:Specific energy|specific energy]] than the IPV.
* Single pressure vessel (SPV) design combines up to 22 cells in series in a single pressure vessel.
* Bipolar design is based on thick [[Physics:Electrode|electrode]]s,  positive-to-negative back-to-back stacked in a SPV.<ref>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983iece....4.1568A Development of a large scale bipolar NiH<sub>2</sub> battery].</ref>
* Dependent pressure vessel (DPV) cell design offers higher specific energy and reduced cost.<ref>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995sert.nasa...13C 1995–dependent pressure vessel (DPV)]</ref>
* Common/dependent pressure vessel (C/DPV) is a hybrid of the common pressure vessel (CPV) and the dependent pressure vessel (DPV) with a high volumetric efficiency.<ref>[http://www.techbriefs.com/component/content/article/915 Common/dependent-pressure-vessel nickel-hydrogen Batteries]</ref>

<gallery caption="Schematics" widths="100px" heights="100px" perrow="6">
Image:Battery workshop 1993 Fig1 Nickel hydrogen battery.jpg
Image:Battery workshop 1993 Fig2 Nickel hydrogen battery.jpg
Image:Battery workshop 1993 Fig3 Nickel hydrogen battery.jpg
Image:Battery workshop 1993 Fig4 Nickel hydrogen battery.jpg
Image:5420miller.jpg
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Physics:List of battery types|List of battery types]]
* [[Physics:List of battery sizes|List of battery sizes]]
* Comparison of battery types
* [[Chemistry:Nickel–metal hydride battery|Nickel–metal hydride battery]]
* [[Engineering:Power-to-weight ratio|Power-to-weight ratio]]
* [[Physics:Pressure vessel|Pressure vessel]]
* [[Physics:Timeline of hydrogen technologies|Timeline of hydrogen technologies]]
* [[Engineering:Batteries in space|Batteries in space]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Albert H. Zimmerman (ed), ''Nickel-Hydrogen Batteries Principles and Practice'', The Aerospace Press, El Segundo, California. {{ISBN|1-884989-20-9}}.

==External links==
* [https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20030062140_2003070874.pdf Overview of the design, development, and application of nickel-hydrogen batteries]
* [http://www.electrochem.org/dl/ma/206/pdfs/1465.pdf Implantable nickel hydrogen batteries for bio-power applications]
* [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993STIN...9413265D NASA handbook for nickel-hydrogen batteries]
* [http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=59267 A nickel/hydrogen battery for terrestrial PV systems]
* [http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=18561599 A microfabricated nickel-hydrogen battery using thick film printing techniques]

{{Galvanic cells}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nickel-hydrogen battery}}
[[Category:Hydrogen technologies]]
[[Category:Rechargeable batteries]]

{{Sourceattribution|Nickel–hydrogen battery}}