View source for Physics:Hydrogen vehicle

{{short description|Vehicle that uses hydrogen fuel for motive power}}
[[File:Toyota FCV reveal 25 June 2014 - by Bertel Schmitt 02.jpg|thumb|300px|The 2015 Toyota Mirai is the world's first mass-produced and commercially marketed dedicated hydrogen fuel cell vehicles that is not a modification of an existing model.<ref name="wsj141215"/><ref name="jt150123"/> The Mirai is based on the Toyota fuel cell vehicle (FCV) concept car (shown).<ref>{{cite web| url=http://transportevolved.com/2014/06/25/toyota-unveils-2015-fuel-cell-sedan-will-retail-japan-around-%C2%A57-million/|title=Toyota Unveils 2015 Fuel Cell Sedan, Will Retail in Japan For Around ¥7 Million|publisher=transportevolved.com|date=2014-06-25|access-date=2014-06-26|archive-date=2018-11-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119025848/https://transportevolved.com/2014/06/25/toyota-unveils-2015-fuel-cell-sedan-will-retail-japan-around-%C2%A57-million/|url-status=live}}</ref>]] A '''hydrogen vehicle''' is a vehicle that uses hydrogen fuel for motive power. Hydrogen vehicles include road vehicles, rail vehicles and hydrogen-fueled space rockets, as well as hydrogen-powered ships and aircraft. Motive power is generated by converting the chemical energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy, either by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to power [[Physics:Electric motor|electric motor]]s or, less commonly, by hydrogen internal combustion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iphe.net/docs/Resources/Power_trains_for_Europe.pdf|title=A portfolio of power-trains for Europe: a fact-based analysis|website=iphe.net|access-date=15 April 2018|archive-date=15 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015151243/https://www.iphe.net/docs/Resources/Power_trains_for_Europe.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{as of|2021||df=}}, there are two models of hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets: the [[Engineering:Toyota Mirai|Toyota Mirai]] (2014–), which is the world's first commercially produced dedicated fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV),<ref name="wsj141215"/><ref name="jt150123"/><ref name="inf220516"/> and the [[Engineering:Hyundai Nexo|Hyundai Nexo]] (2018–). There are also [[Engineering:Fuel cell bus|fuel cell bus]]es. Hydrogen aircraft are not expected to carry many passengers long haul before the 2030s at the earliest.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Planes running on batteries and hydrogen to become a reality under new group of aviation experts |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/planes-running-on-batteries-and-hydrogen-to-become-a-reality-under-new-group-of-aviation-experts |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=GOV.UK}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Frangoul |first=Anmar |date=2022-02-17 |title=Airbus CEO says hydrogen plane is 'the ultimate solution' but cautions a lot of work lies ahead |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/02/17/airbus-ceo-says-hydrogen-plane-is-the-ultimate-solution.html |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=CNBC}}</ref>

As of 2019, 98% of hydrogen is produced by steam methane reforming, which [[Earth:Greenhouse gas emissions|emits carbon dioxide]].<ref name=Realising/> It can be produced by [[Physics:Electrolysis of water|electrolysis of water]], or by thermochemical or pyrolytic means using renewable feedstocks, but the processes are currently expensive.<ref name=Production>Romm, Joseph. [http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/05/3467115/tesla-toyota-hydrogen-cars-batteries/ Tesla Trumps Toyota: Why Hydrogen Cars Can’t Compete With Pure Electric Cars"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821024845/http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/05/3467115/tesla-toyota-hydrogen-cars-batteries/ |date=2014-08-21 }}, ThinkProgress, August 5, 2014.</ref> Various technologies are being developed that aim to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with hydrogen production using natural gas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/proj_wind_hydrogen.html|title=Wind-to-Hydrogen Project|date=September 2009|work=Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Research|publisher=National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy|access-date=7 January 2010|location=Golden, CO|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826043817/http://nrel.gov/hydrogen/proj_wind_hydrogen.html|archive-date=26 August 2009}}. See also [http://energy.gov/articles/energy-department-launches-public-private-partnership-deploy-hydrogen-infrastructure Energy Department Launches Public-Private Partnership to Deploy Hydrogen Infrastructure] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607042446/http://energy.gov/articles/energy-department-launches-public-private-partnership-deploy-hydrogen-infrastructure |date=2014-06-07 }}, US Dept. of Energy, accessed November 15, 2014</ref>

Vehicles running on hydrogen technology benefit from a long range on a single refuelling, but are subject to several drawbacks: high carbon emissions when hydrogen is produced from natural gas, capital cost burden, high energy inputs in production, low energy content per unit volume at ambient conditions, production and compression of hydrogen, the investment required to build [[Engineering:Bunkering|refuelling infrastructure]] around the world to dispense hydrogen, and transportation of hydrogen.<ref name="Berman2013">{{cite news| author=Berman, Bradley| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/24/automobiles/fuel-cells-at-center-stage.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1&adxnnlx=1385313339-SWDXRwwueS6Exot9wFmA%20Q| title=Fuel Cells at Center Stage| work={{wipe|The New York Times}}| date=2013-11-22| access-date=2013-11-26| archive-date=2014-11-07| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141107163736/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/24/automobiles/fuel-cells-at-center-stage.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1&adxnnlx=1385313339-SWDXRwwueS6Exot9wFmA%20Q| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Davies, Alex|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/honda-hydrogen-fuel-cell-car-future-la-auto-show-2013-11|title=Honda Is Working On Hydrogen Technology That Will Generate Power Inside Your Car|work=The Business Insider|date=2013-11-22|access-date=2013-11-26|archive-date=2013-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131125201804/http://www.businessinsider.com/honda-hydrogen-fuel-cell-car-future-la-auto-show-2013-11|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Cox2014">Cox, Julian. [http://cleantechnica.com/2014/06/04/hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-about-not-clean "Time To Come Clean About Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715023909/http://cleantechnica.com/2014/06/04/hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-about-not-clean/ |date=July 15, 2014}}, CleanTechnica.com, June 4, 2014</ref> In addition, leaked hydrogen has a global warming effect 11.6 times stronger than CO₂.<ref name=CICERO>Bjørnæs, Christian. [https://cicero.oslo.no/en/hydrogen-leaks-add-to-global-warming "Global warming potential of hydrogen estimated"], [[Organization:Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research|Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research]], June 7, 2023. Retrieved June 15, 2023</ref>

For light duty vehicles including passenger cars, hydrogen adoption is behind that of battery electric vehicles. A 2022 study found that technological developments and economies of scale in BEVs, compared with the evolution of the use of hydrogen, have made it unlikely for hydrogen light-duty vehicles to play a significant role in the future.<ref name=role/>

==Vehicles==
[[File:FCX-Honda.JPG|thumb|The Honda FCX, along with the Toyota FCHV, is the world's first government-certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicle.<ref name="honda021203"/><ref name="jt021119"/>]]{{further|Fuel cell vehicle}}

=== Rationale and context===
The rationale for hydrogen vehicles lies in their potential to reduce reliance on fossil fuels, associated greenhouse gas emissions and localised air pollution from transportation.<ref name="sustain">{{cite web |last = McCarthy |first = J. |title = Hydrogen |publisher = [[Organization:Stanford University|Stanford University]] |date = 31 December 1995 |url = http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/hydrogen.html |access-date = 14 March 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080314043136/http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/hydrogen.html |archive-date = 14 March 2008 |df = dmy-all}}</ref> This would require hydrogen to be produced cleanly, for use in sectors and applications where cheaper and more energy efficient mitigation alternatives are limited. 

===Aeroplanes===
[[File:Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator AB1.JPG|thumb|right|The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator powered by a hydrogen fuel cell]]
Companies such as [[Company:Boeing|Boeing]], Lange Aviation, and the [[Organization:German Aerospace Center|German Aerospace Center]] pursue hydrogen as fuel for crewed and uncrewed aeroplanes. In February 2008 Boeing tested a crewed flight of a small aircraft powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. Uncrewed hydrogen planes have also been tested.<ref>{{cite web |date=2009-10-15 |title=Ion tiger hydrogen UAV |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091013123350.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221131439/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091013123350.htm |archive-date=2010-12-21 |access-date=2010-12-12 |publisher=Sciencedaily.com}}</ref> For large passenger aeroplanes, ''The Times'' reported that "Boeing said that hydrogen fuel cells were unlikely to power the engines of large passenger jet aeroplanes but could be used as backup or auxiliary power units onboard."<ref name="Apr08Times">{{cite news |author=David Robertson |date=3 April 2008 |title=Boeing tests first hydrogen powered plane |newspaper=The Times |location=London |url=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/transport/article3675188.ece |url-status=live |access-date=3 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612042658/http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/transport/article3675188.ece |archive-date=12 June 2011}}</ref>

In July 2010, Boeing unveiled its hydrogen-powered [[Engineering:Boeing Phantom Eye|Phantom Eye]] [[Engineering:Unmanned aerial vehicle|UAV]], powered by two Ford internal-combustion engines that have been converted to run on hydrogen.<ref name="The Register">{{cite web |date=2010-07-13 |title=Boeing's 'Phantom Eye' Ford Fusion powered stratocraft |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2010/07/13/phantom_eye_rollout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714220048/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2010/07/13/phantom_eye_rollout/ |archive-date=2010-07-14 |access-date=2010-07-14 |website=The Register}}</ref>

===Automobiles===

In the light road vehicle segment, by the end of 2022, 70,200 fuel cell electric vehicles had been sold worldwide,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Chu |first1=Yidan |url=https://theicct.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Global-EV-sales-2022_FINAL.pdf |title=Annual update on the global transition to electric vehicles: 2022 |last2=Cui |first2=Hongyang |publisher=International Council on Clean Transportation |pages=2–3 |access-date=2023-08-25}}</ref> compared with 26 million plug-in electric vehicles.<ref name=Outlook2023>{{Cite book |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023 |title=Global EV Outlook 2023 |publisher=IEA |pages=14–24 |access-date=2023-08-25}}</ref> With the rapid rise of [[Engineering:Electric vehicle|electric vehicle]]s and associated battery technology and infrastructure, the global scope for hydrogen’s role in cars is shrinking relative to earlier expectations.<ref name=role>{{Cite journal |last=Plötz |first=Patrick |date=January 2022 |title=Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41928-021-00706-6 |journal=Nature Electronics |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=8–10 |doi=10.1038/s41928-021-00706-6 |issn=2520-1131}}</ref><ref name="Collins l_collins">{{Cite web |last=Collins (l_collins) |first=Leigh |date=2022-02-02 |title='Hydrogen unlikely to play major role in road transport, even for heavy trucks': Fraunhofer |url=https://www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/-hydrogen-unlikely-to-play-major-role-in-road-transport-even-for-heavy-trucks-fraunhofer/2-1-1162055 |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=Recharge}}</ref>

The first road vehicle powered by a hydrogen fuel cell was the Chevrolet Electrovan, introduced by [[Company:General Motors|General Motors]] in 1966.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.carsguide.com.au/car-advice/the-history-of-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars-85330|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129181457/https://www.carsguide.com.au/car-advice/the-history-of-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars-85330|title=The history of hydrogen fuel cell cars|publisher=The Market Herald|date=29 December 2021|archive-date=29 January 2023}}</ref>

The [[Engineering:Toyota FCHV|Toyota FCHV]] and [[Engineering:Honda FCX|Honda FCX]], which began leasing on December 2, 2002, became the world's first government-certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicles,<ref name="jt021119">{{cite web|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/11/19/business/toyota-to-lease-fuel-cell-cars-to-state/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308232938/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/11/19/business/toyota-to-lease-fuel-cell-cars-to-state/|title=Toyota to lease fuel-cell cars to state|publisher=The Japan Times|date=19 November 2002|archive-date=8 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="honda021203">{{cite web|url=https://global.honda/newsroom/news/2002/4021203-fcx-eng.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308233714/https://global.honda/newsroom/news/2002/4021203-fcx-eng.html|title=First Honda FCX Fuel Cell Vehicles Delivered on Same Day in Japan and the U.S.|publisher=Honda|date=3 December 2002|archive-date=8 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/07/26/business/hydrogen-powered-honda-achieves-world-first/#.XDN1-XZ_q3A|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107155311/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/07/26/business/hydrogen-powered-honda-achieves-world-first/#.XDN1-XZ_q3A|title=Hydrogen-powered Honda achieves world first|publisher=The Japan Times|date=26 July 2002|archive-date=7 January 2019}}</ref> and the [[Engineering:Honda Clarity|Honda FCX Clarity]], which began leasing in 2008, was the world's first hydrogen fuel cell vehicle designed for mass production rather than adapting an existing model.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.autoblog.com/2007/11/18/first-drive-2009-honda-fcx-clarity-worlds-first-series-produc/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729003834/https://www.autoblog.com/2007/11/18/first-drive-2009-honda-fcx-clarity-worlds-first-series-produc/|title=Honda FCX Clarity, world's first series production fuel cell car|publisher=Verizon Media|date=18 November 2007|archive-date=29 July 2021}}</ref> Honda established the world's first fuel cell vehicle dealer network in 2008, and at the time was the only company able to lease hydrogen fuel cell vehicles to private customers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/aug/24/hydrogen-powered-vehicles-on-horizon/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930034059/https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/aug/24/hydrogen-powered-vehicles-on-horizon/|title=Hydrogen-powered vehicles on horizon|website=The Washington Times |publisher=|date=24 August 2009|archive-date=30 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecarconnection.com/news/1015667_honda-sets-up-worlds-first-fuel-cell-dealer-network|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521025801/https://www.thecarconnection.com/news/1015667_honda-sets-up-worlds-first-fuel-cell-dealer-network|title=Honda Sets Up World's First Fuel Cell Dealer Network|publisher=The Car Connection|date=16 June 2018|archive-date=21 May 2022}}</ref>

[[File:Hyundai Nexo Genf 2018.jpg|thumb|The Hyundai Nexo is a hydrogen fuel cell-powered crossover SUV]]
The 2013 Hyundai Tucson FCEV, a modified Tucson, was introduced to the market as a lease-only vehicle,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.drive.com.au/news/hyundai-ix35-fuel-cell-launching-in-2014-with-free-hydrogen-fuel/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706002038/https://www.drive.com.au/news/hyundai-ix35-fuel-cell-launching-in-2014-with-free-hydrogen-fuel/|title=Hyundai ix35 Fuel Cell launching in 2014 with free hydrogen fuel|publisher=Drive.com.au|date=22 November 2013|archive-date=6 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hyundaihydrogen.ca/faq.html |title=The Tucson Fuel Cell FAQ &#124; HyundaiHydrogen.ca |access-date=2016-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324212819/http://www.hyundaihydrogen.ca/faq.html |archive-date=2016-03-24}}</ref> and Hyundai Motors claimed it was the world's first mass-produced hydrogen fuel cell vehicle.<ref name="yonhap150615"/><ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.hyundainews.com/en-us/releases/1624| title=Hyundai ix35 Fuel Cell| publisher=Hyundai| access-date=18 November 2018| archive-date=18 November 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118171602/https://www.hyundainews.com/en-us/releases/1624| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.businesskorea.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=552| title=The World's First Mass-Production of FCEV| access-date=18 November 2018| archive-date=18 November 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118164724/http://www.businesskorea.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=552| url-status=live}}</ref> However, due to high prices and a lack of charging infrastructure, sales fell far short of initial plans, with only 273 units sold by the end of May 2015.<ref name="yonhap150615">{{cite web|url=http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/full/2015/06/15/38/1200000000AEN20150615002600320F.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621070638/http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/full/2015/06/15/38/1200000000AEN20150615002600320F.html|title=Hyundai Motor's fuel-cell car sales miss target|publisher=Yonhap News Agency|date=15 June 2015|archive-date=21 June 2015}}</ref> [[Engineering:Hyundai Nexo|Hyundai Nexo]], which succeeded the Tucson in 2018, was selected as the "safest SUV" by the Euro NCAP in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.euroncap.com:443/en/ratings-rewards/best-in-class-cars/2018|title=Euro NCAP Best in Class 2018 - new award for best performing hybrid & electric car of 2018 &#124; Euro NCAP|website=www.euroncap.com|access-date=2019-06-24|archive-date=2019-06-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624190214/https://www.euroncap.com/en/ratings-rewards/best-in-class-cars/2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Company:Toyota|Toyota]] launched the world's first dedicated mass-produced fuel cell vehicle (FCV), the [[Engineering:Toyota Mirai|Mirai]], in Japan at the end of 2014<ref name="wsj141215">{{cite web|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/japanrealtime/2014/12/15/toyotas-fuel-cell-powered-mirai-hits-showrooms/?guid=BL-JRTB-18738&dsk=y|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180526232252/https://blogs.wsj.com/japanrealtime/2014/12/15/toyotas-fuel-cell-powered-mirai-hits-showrooms/?guid=BL-JRTB-18738&dsk=y|title=Toyota's Fuel-Cell Car Mirai Goes on Sale|publisher={{wipe|The Wall Street Journal}}|date=15 December 2014|archive-date=26 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="jt150123">{{cite web|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/01/23/business/corporate-business/toyota-to-quadruple-production-of-mirai-fuel-cell-vehicles-by-2017/#.VZqmPXZ_q3B|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706160050/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/01/23/business/corporate-business/toyota-to-quadruple-production-of-mirai-fuel-cell-vehicles-by-2017/#.VZqmPXZ_q3B|title=Toyota to quadruple production of Mirai fuel-cell vehicles by 2017|publisher=The Japan Times|date=23 January 2015|archive-date=6 July 2015}}</ref><ref name="inf220516">{{cite web|url=https://www.adrianflux.co.uk/influx/features/toyota-mirai-hydrogen/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516151134/https://www.adrianflux.co.uk/influx/features/toyota-mirai-hydrogen/|title=Toyota Mirai x Hydrogen: the world's first mass produced HFCV|date=20 January 2017 |archive-date=16 May 2022|access-date=8 March 2023}}</ref> and began sales in California, mainly the Los Angeles area and also in selected markets in Europe, the UK, Germany and Denmark<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://insideevs.com/news/325606/european-sales-of-toyota-mirai-to-begin-this-september/|title=European Sales Of Toyota Mirai To Begin This September|website=InsideEVs}}</ref> later in 2015.<ref name=Voelcker>Voelcker, John. [https://autos.yahoo.com/news/decades-promises-dude-wheres-hydrogen-fuel-cell-car-130000421.html "Decades Of Promises: 'Dude, Where's My Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Car?'"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302032700/https://autos.yahoo.com/news/decades-promises-dude-wheres-hydrogen-fuel-cell-car-130000421.html |date=2021-03-02 }}, Yahoo.com, March 31, 2015</ref> The car has a range of {{convert|312|mi|abbr=on}} and takes about five minutes to refill its hydrogen tank. The initial sale price in Japan was about 7 million yen ($69,000).<ref name="bloomberg.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-06-25/toyota-to-offer-69-000-car-as-musk-pans-fool-cells-.html/|title=Toyota to Offer $69,000 Car After Musk Pans 'Fool Cells'|newspaper=Bloomberg.com |date=2014-06-25|access-date=2014-06-27|archive-date=2014-06-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627055520/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-06-25/toyota-to-offer-69-000-car-as-musk-pans-fool-cells-.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimated that Toyota would initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold.<ref name=Cost2014>Ayre, James. [http://cleantechnica.com/2014/11/19/toyota-lose-100000-every-hydrogen-fcv-sold "Toyota To Lose $100,000 On Every Hydrogen FCV Sold?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103131510/https://cleantechnica.com/2014/11/19/toyota-lose-100000-every-hydrogen-fcv-sold/ |date=2015-01-03 }}, CleanTechnica.com, November 19, 2014; and Blanco, Sebastian. [http://green.autoblog.com/2014/11/12/bibendum-2014-toyota-lose-100000-euros-fcv-hydrogen-car/ "Bibendum 2014: Former EU President says Toyota could lose 100,000 euros per hydrogen FCV sedan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141124221312/http://green.autoblog.com/2014/11/12/bibendum-2014-toyota-lose-100000-euros-fcv-hydrogen-car/ |date=2014-11-24 }}, GreenAutoblog.com, November 12, 2014</ref> At the end of 2019, Toyota had sold over 10,000 Mirais.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://global.toyota/en/company/profile/production-sales-figures/202003.html?_ga=2.211351126.219919894.1589198585-1423135873.1589198585 | title=Sales, Production, and Export Results for March 2020 &#124; Sales, Production, and Export Results &#124; Profile &#124; Company | access-date=2020-05-11 | archive-date=2021-03-02 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302032735/https://global.toyota/en/company/profile/production-sales-figures/202003.html?_ga=2.211351126.219919894.1589198585-1423135873.1589198585 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Realising>[https://www.power-technology.com/comment/standing-at-the-precipice-of-the-hydrogen-economy "Realising the hydrogen economy"],''Power Technology'', 11 October 2019</ref> Many automobile companies have introduced demonstration models in limited numbers (see [[Engineering:List of fuel cell vehicles|List of fuel cell vehicles]] and List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles).<ref name=Whoriskey>Whoriskey, Peter. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/10/16/AR2009101601002.html "The Hydrogen Car Gets Its Fuel Back"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226082540/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/10/16/AR2009101601002.html |date=2017-02-26 }}, ''Washington Post'', October 17, 2009</ref><ref>[[Company:Riversimple|Riversimple]] plans to lease a vehicle to the public by 2018 [http://www.topgear.com/car-news/first-look/hydrogen-car-you-can-actually-afford "Hydrogen Car You Can Actually Afford"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306210051/http://www.topgear.com/car-news/first-look/hydrogen-car-you-can-actually-afford |date=2016-03-06 }}, TopGear.com</ref>

In 2013 [[Company:BMW|BMW]] leased hydrogen technology from [[Company:Toyota|Toyota]], and a group formed by [[Company:Ford Motor Company|Ford Motor Company]], Daimler AG, and [[Company:Nissan|Nissan]] announced a collaboration on hydrogen technology development.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/510416/ford-daimler-and-nissan-commit-to-fuel-cells|title=Ford, Daimler, and Nissan Commit to Fuel Cells|first=Martin|last=LaMonica|website=technologyreview.com|access-date=15 April 2018|archive-date=9 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109042120/https://www.technologyreview.com/s/510416/ford-daimler-and-nissan-commit-to-fuel-cells/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2015, Toyota announced that it would offer all 5,680 patents related to hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell charging station technology, which it has been researching for over 20 years, to its competitors free of charge in order to stimulate the market for hydrogen-powered vehicles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://time.com/3654899/toyota-mirai-patents-hydrogen-power/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707054645/https://time.com/3654899/toyota-mirai-patents-hydrogen-power/|title=Toyota Wants Everyone to Know How It Made Its Hydrogen-Powered Car|publisher={{wipe|Time (magazine)}}|date=5 January 2015|archive-date=7 July 2022}}</ref>

By 2017, however, Daimler had abandoned hydrogen vehicle development,<ref>Gordon-Bloomfield, Nikki. [https://transportevolved.com/2017/04/04/are-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars-doomed-and-have-electric-cars-won "Are Hydrogen Fuel Cell Cars Doomed – And Have Electric Cars Won?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406022441/https://transportevolved.com/2017/04/04/are-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars-doomed-and-have-electric-cars-won/ |date=2017-04-06 }}, TransportEvolved.com, April 4, 2017</ref> and most of the automobile companies developing hydrogen cars had switched their focus to battery electric vehicles.<ref>Williams, Keith. [https://seekingalpha.com/article/4103682-switch-hydrogen-electric-vehicles-continues-now-hyundai-makes-move "The Switch from Hydrogen to Electric Vehicles Continues, Now Hyundai Makes the Move"], ''[[Finance:Seeking Alpha|Seeking Alpha]]'', September 1, 2017</ref> By 2020, all but three automobile companies had abandoned plans to manufacture hydrogen cars.<ref name=Morris>Morris, Charles. [https://cleantechnica.com/2021/10/14/why-are-3-automakers-still-hyping-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles "Why Are 3 Automakers Still Hyping Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles?"], CleanTechnica, October 14, 2021</ref>

====Auto racing====
A record of {{convert|207.297|mph}} was set by a prototype Ford Fusion Hydrogen 999 Fuel Cell Race Car at the Bonneville Salt Flats, in August 2007, using a large compressed oxygen tank to increase power.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.motorsportsjournal.com/archives/fuel_saving_vehicles_hybrids/ |title=New Hydrogen-Powered Land Speed Record from Ford |publisher=Motorsportsjournal.com |access-date=2010-12-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209034212/http://www.motorsportsjournal.com/archives/fuel_saving_vehicles_hybrids/ |archive-date=2010-12-09 }}</ref> The land-speed record for a hydrogen-powered vehicle of {{convert|286.476|mph}} was set by [[Organization:Ohio State University|Ohio State University]]'s Buckeye Bullet 2, which achieved a "flying-mile" speed of {{convert|280.007|mph}} at the Bonneville Salt Flats in August 2008.

In 2007, the Hydrogen Electric Racing Federation was formed as a racing organization for hydrogen fuel cell-powered vehicles. The organization sponsored the Hydrogen 500, a 500-mile race.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hydrogen Electric Racing Federation looks to revolutionize motorsports |url=https://www.autoweek.com/news/a2049231/hydrogen-electric-racing-federation-looks-revolutionize-motorsports/ |website=Autoweek |access-date=17 June 2020 |date=9 January 2007 |archive-date=17 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617081459/https://www.autoweek.com/news/a2049231/hydrogen-electric-racing-federation-looks-revolutionize-motorsports/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Buses===
{{Main|Engineering:Fuel cell bus}}
[[File:Solaris Urbino 12 hydrogen 2.jpg|thumb|A Solaris Urbino 12 bus near its factory in Bolechowo, Poland]]
Fuel-cell buses have been trialed by several manufacturers in different locations, for example, the [[Company:Ursus Factory|Ursus]] Lublin.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://en.ursus.com.pl/|title=Ursus Lublin|access-date=2017-04-06|archive-date=2017-05-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501214643/http://en.ursus.com.pl/|url-status=live}}</ref> Solaris Bus & Coach introduced its Urbino 12 hydrogen electric buses in 2019. Several dozen were ordered.<ref>[https://www.greencarcongress.com/2020/04/20200415-solaris.html "Connexxion orders 20 Solaris hydrogen buses for South Holland"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626081233/https://www.greencarcongress.com/2020/04/20200415-solaris.html |date=2020-06-26 }}, Green Car Congress, 15 April 2020</ref> In 2022, the city of Montpellier, France, cancelled a contract to procure 51 buses powered by hydrogen fuel cells, when it found that "the cost of operation for hydrogen [buses] is 6 times the cost of electricity".<ref>Hanley, Steve. [https://cleantechnica.com/2022/01/11/french-city-cancels-hydrogen-bus-contract-opts-for-electric-buses "French City Cancels Hydrogen Bus Contract, Opts for Electric Buses"], CleanTechnica.com, January 11, 2022</ref>

===Trams and trains===
In the [[Organization:International Energy Agency|International Energy Agency]]’s 2022 Net Zero Emissions Scenario, hydrogen is forecast to account for 2% of rail energy demand in 2050, while 90% of rail travel is expected to be electrified by then (up from 45% today). Hydrogen’s role in rail would likely be focused on lines that prove difficult or costly to electrify.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2022 |title=World energy outlook 2022 |publisher=International Energy Agency |pages=150}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>

In March 2015, China South Rail Corporation (CSR) demonstrated the world's first hydrogen fuel cell-powered tramcar at an assembly facility in Qingdao.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.yibada.com/articles/21142/20150321/china-worlds-first-hydrogen-fueled-tram.htm#|title=China Presents the World's First Hydrogen-Fueled Tram|date=21 March 2015|access-date=6 May 2015|archive-date=6 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906125005/http://en.yibada.com/articles/21142/20150321/china-worlds-first-hydrogen-fueled-tram.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Tracks for the new vehicle have been built in seven Chinese cities.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-03-25/china-s-hydrogen-powered-future-starts-in-trams-not-cars|title=China's Hydrogen-Powered Future Starts in Trams, Not Cars|newspaper=Bloomberg.com |date=March 25, 2015|via=www.bloomberg.com|access-date=2017-03-07|archive-date=2016-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125010057/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-03-25/china-s-hydrogen-powered-future-starts-in-trams-not-cars|url-status=live}}</ref>

In northern Germany in 2018 the first fuel-cell powered Coradia iLint trains were placed into service; excess power is stored in [[Engineering:Lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion batteries]].<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/sep/17/germany-launches-worlds-first-hydrogen-powered-train "Germany launches world's first hydrogen-powered train"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917170608/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/sep/17/germany-launches-worlds-first-hydrogen-powered-train |date=2018-09-17 }}, ''The Guardian'', September 17, 2018</ref>

===Ships===
{{As of|2019}} Hydrogen fuel cells are not suitable for propulsion in large long-distance ships, but they are being considered as a range-extender for smaller, short-distance, low-speed electric vessels, such as ferries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ship.nridigital.com/ship_mar19/could_fuel_cells_soon_be_used_in_ship_propulsion|title=Could fuel cells soon be used in ship propulsion?|date=2019-03-07|website=Ship Technology|access-date=2019-06-18|archive-date=2019-07-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724190243/https://ship.nridigital.com/ship_mar19/could_fuel_cells_soon_be_used_in_ship_propulsion|url-status=live}}</ref> Hydrogen in [[Chemistry:Ammonia|ammonia]] is being considered as a long-distance fuel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2018_11_Roadmap_decarbonising_European_shipping.pdf|title=Roadmap to decarbonizing European shipping|last=Abbasov|first=Faig|date=November 2018|website=Transportenvironment.org|access-date=June 18, 2019|archive-date=June 25, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625210807/https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2018_11_Roadmap_decarbonising_European_shipping.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Bicycles and stand-up scooters===
[[Image:Hydrogen bicycle.jpg|thumb|PHB hydrogen bicycle]]
In 2007, Pearl Hydrogen Power Source Technology Co of [[Place:Shanghai|Shanghai]], China, demonstrated a [[Engineering:PHB (bicycle)|PHB]] hydrogen bicycle.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/chinese-company-plans-hydrogen-fuel-cell-bike.html|title=Chinese Company Plans Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bike|last=Fisher|first=Sean|website=TreeHugger|date=September 10, 2007|access-date=August 15, 2019|archive-date=August 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141439/https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/chinese-company-plans-hydrogen-fuel-cell-bike.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com/hydrogen-fuel-cell-bike-298773|title=Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bike|website=Gizmodo|date=November 9, 2007|access-date=August 15, 2019|archive-date=August 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141432/https://gizmodo.com/hydrogen-fuel-cell-bike-298773|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2014, Australian scientists from the University of New South Wales presented their Hy-Cycle model.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.autoevolution.com/news/hy-cycle-is-australia-s-first-hydrogen-fuel-cell-bicycle-motorcycles-next-maybe-video-86720.html|title=Hy-Cycle Is Australia's First Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bicycle. Motorcycles Next, Maybe?|last=Tibu|first=Florin|website=autoevolution.com|date=September 18, 2014|access-date=August 15, 2019|archive-date=August 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141433/https://www.autoevolution.com/news/hy-cycle-is-australia-s-first-hydrogen-fuel-cell-bicycle-motorcycles-next-maybe-video-86720.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The same year, Canyon Bicycles started to work on the Eco Speed concept bicycle.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ebiketips.road.cc/content/news/future-tech-canyon-s-eco-speed-hydrogen-powered-e-bike-concept-82|title=Future Tech: Canyon's Eco Speed hydrogen powered e-bike concept|last=Arthur|first=David|website=ebiketips.road.cc|date=January 30, 2016|access-date=August 15, 2019|archive-date=August 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141439/https://ebiketips.road.cc/content/news/future-tech-canyon-s-eco-speed-hydrogen-powered-e-bike-concept-82|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2017, Pragma Industries of France developed a bicycle that was able to travel 100&nbsp;km on a single hydrogen cylinder.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.designboom.com/technology/pragma-industries-alpha-hydrogen-bicycle-03-2017|title=Pragma Industries' alpha model is a powerful hydrogen-fueled bike|last=Chaya|first=Lynn|website=Designboom|date=November 3, 2017|access-date=August 15, 2019|archive-date=August 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819141427/https://www.designboom.com/technology/pragma-industries-alpha-hydrogen-bicycle-03-2017/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2019, Pragma announced that the product, "Alpha Bike", has been improved to offer an electrically assisted pedalling range of 150&nbsp;km, and the first 200 of the bikes are to be provided to journalists covering the 45th G7 summit in Biarritz, France.<ref>Coxworth, Ben. [https://newatlas.com/alter-fuel-cell-bike-range-boost/61035 "World's first fuel-cell e-bike gets a big boost in range"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815023344/https://newatlas.com/alter-fuel-cell-bike-range-boost/61035/ |date=2019-08-15 }}, NewAtlas.com, August 13, 2019</ref>

In 2020, Alles over Waterstof<ref>{{Cite web |title=HydroRange Waterstof Range Extender |url=https://allesoverwaterstof.nl/hydrorange/ |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=Alles over Waterstof |language=nl-NL}}</ref> developed a 2 wheel hydrogen powered stand-up scooter. The stand-up scooter has a range of over 20 km on 15 grams of hydrogen. It uses a swappable 1 litre 200 bar hydrogen cylinder. In 2021 the company developed a hydrogen powered cargo-bike, using a static 3 litre 300 bar refillable hydrogen cylinder. The HydroCargo bike has a range of up to 100 km on 80 grams of hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite web |title=HydroCargo 'Last Mile' bakfiets |url=https://allesoverwaterstof.nl/hydrocargo/ |access-date=2024-01-03 |website=Alles over Waterstof |language=nl-NL}}</ref>

Lloyd Alter of TreeHugger responded to the announcement, asking "why … go through the trouble of using electricity to make hydrogen, only to turn it back into electricity to charge a battery to run the e-bike [or] pick a fuel that needs an expensive filling station that can only handle 35 bikes a day, when you can charge a battery powered bike anywhere. [If] you were a captive fleet operator, why [not] just swap out batteries to get the range and the fast turnover?"<ref>Alter, Lloyd. [https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/hydrogen-powered-e-bike-cranked-93-mile-range.html "Hydrogen-powered e-bike cranked up to 93 mile range"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815064811/https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/hydrogen-powered-e-bike-cranked-93-mile-range.html |date=2019-08-15 }}, TreeHugger, August 14, 2019</ref>

===Military vehicles===
[[Company:General Motors|General Motors]]' military division, GM Defense, focuses on hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.autonews.com/article/20171009/OEM/171009800/gm-military-defense-contractor |title=General Motors establishing new military defense division |publisher=AutoNews.com |date=October 9, 2017 |access-date=October 16, 2018 |archive-date=October 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009220738/https://www.autonews.com/article/20171009/OEM/171009800/general-motors-establishing-new-military-defense-division |url-status=live }}</ref> Its SURUS (Silent Utility Rover Universal Superstructure) is a flexible fuel cell electric platform with autonomous capabilities. Since April 2017, the U.S. Army has been testing the commercial [[Engineering:Chevrolet Colorado|Chevrolet Colorado]] ZH2 on its U.S. bases to determine the viability of hydrogen-powered vehicles in military mission tactical environments.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://media.gm.com/media/us/en/gm/home.detail.html/content/Pages/news/us/en/2017/oct/1006-fuel-cell-platform.html |title=GM Outlines Possibilities for Flexible, Autonomous Fuel Cell Electric Platform |publisher=GM Media Release |date=October 6, 2017 |access-date=October 16, 2018 |archive-date=April 12, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412202210/https://media.gm.com/media/us/en/gm/home.detail.html/content/Pages/news/us/en/2017/oct/1006-fuel-cell-platform.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Motorcycles and scooters===
ENV develops electric motorcycles powered by a hydrogen fuel cell, including the Crosscage and Biplane. Other manufacturers as Vectrix are working on hydrogen scooters.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jalopnik.com/cars/lighter_than_air-scooting/the-graf-scooter-278441.php |title=Hydrogen scooter by vectrix |publisher=Jalopnik.com |date=2007-07-13 |access-date=2010-12-12 |archive-date=2009-06-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603172511/http://jalopnik.com/cars/lighter_than_air-scooting/the-graf-scooter-278441.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Finally, hydrogen-fuel-cell-electric-hybrid scooters are being made such as the Suzuki Burgman fuel-cell scooter<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/blog2/index.php/hydrogen-vehicles/suzuki-burgman-fuel-cell-scooter-to-rollout-within-months/ |title=Suzuki Burgman fuel-cell scooter |publisher=Hydrogencarsnow.com |date=2009-10-27 |access-date=2010-12-12 |archive-date=2011-01-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110126134224/http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/blog2/index.php/hydrogen-vehicles/suzuki-burgman-fuel-cell-scooter-to-rollout-within-months/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the FHybrid.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.io.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id=b679efb4-ec62-4a49-96c8-eaf3839d6480&lang=en |title=Fhybrid fuel cell-electric hybrid scooter |publisher=Io.tudelft.nl |access-date=2010-12-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604151714/http://www.io.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id=b679efb4-ec62-4a49-96c8-eaf3839d6480&lang=en |archive-date=2009-06-04 }}</ref> The Burgman received "whole vehicle type" approval in the EU.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsuzuki.com/Burgman_Fuel-Cell_Scooter/index.html|title=SUZUKI - BURGMAN Fuel-Cell Scooter|access-date=30 May 2015|archive-date=10 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310073140/http://www.globalsuzuki.com/Burgman_Fuel-Cell_Scooter/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Taiwanese company APFCT conducted a live street test with 80 fuel-cell scooters for Taiwan's Bureau of Energy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.apfct.com/article_cat.php?act=view&no=26|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130101222331/http://www.apfct.com/article_cat.php?act=view&no=26|url-status=dead|title=Asia Pacific Fuel Cell Technologies, Ltd. --fuel cell systems and fue…|date=1 January 2013|archive-date=1 January 2013|website=apfct.com|access-date=15 April 2018}}</ref>

===Auto rickshaws===
Hydrogen [[Engineering:Auto rickshaw|auto rickshaw]] concept vehicles have been built by [[Engineering:Mahindra HyAlfa|Mahindra HyAlfa]] and Bajaj Auto.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thecityfix.com/blog/india-showcases-hydrogen-fuel-auto-rickshaws/|title=India Showcases Hydrogen Fuel Auto-Rickshaws &#124;|date=February 21, 2012|access-date=September 21, 2019|archive-date=September 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920170327/https://thecityfix.com/blog/india-showcases-hydrogen-fuel-auto-rickshaws/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/transportation/shipping-/-transport/iit-delhi-scientists-develop-autos-that-run-on-hydrogen-cause-negligible-pollution/articleshow/11858081.cms|title=IIT-Delhi scientists develop autos that run on hydrogen; cause negligible pollution|first=Jayashree|last=Nandi|newspaper=The Economic Times|access-date=2019-09-21|archive-date=2019-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921074423/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/transportation/shipping-/-transport/iit-delhi-scientists-develop-autos-that-run-on-hydrogen-cause-negligible-pollution/articleshow/11858081.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Quads and tractors===
Autostudi S.r.l's H-Due<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecofriend.org/entry/smallest-of-em-rides-piemonte-h-due-concept/ |title=Autostudi S.r.l. H-Due |publisher=Ecofriend.org |date=2008-04-15 |access-date=2010-12-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209090937/http://www.ecofriend.org/entry/smallest-of-em-rides-piemonte-h-due-concept/ |archive-date=2012-12-09 }}</ref> is a hydrogen-powered quad, capable of transporting 1-3 passengers. A concept for a hydrogen-powered tractor has been proposed.<ref>[http://www.efarming.com.au/NewProducts/machinery/08/01/2009/1358/new-holland-wins-gold-for-energy-independent-farm-concept.html New Holland Wins Gold for Energy Independent Farm Concept] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120728155828/http://www.efarming.com.au/NewProducts/machinery/08/01/2009/1358/new-holland-wins-gold-for-energy-independent-farm-concept.html |date=2012-07-28 }} or [http://www.terre-net.fr/materiel-agricole/tracteur-quad/article-new-holland-hydrogene-pile-a-combustible-nh2-harris-ihrig-tracteur-hydrogene-prototype-hydrogen-fuel-cell-powered-tractor-207-53740.html Hydrogen-powered tractor in an Energy Independent Farm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090702035628/http://www.terre-net.fr/materiel-agricole/tracteur-quad/article-new-holland-hydrogene-pile-a-combustible-nh2-harris-ihrig-tracteur-hydrogene-prototype-hydrogen-fuel-cell-powered-tractor-207-53740.html |date=2009-07-02 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cummins and Versatile partner to bring 15L hydrogen engines to ag market |url=https://www.greencarcongress.com/2022/08/20220830-m15h.html |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=Green Car Congress}}</ref>

===Fork trucks===
A hydrogen internal combustion engine (or "HICE") [[Engineering:Forklift|forklift]] or HICE lift truck is a hydrogen fueled, [[Earth:Internal combustion engine|internal combustion engine]]-powered industrial forklift truck used for lifting and transporting materials. The first production HICE forklift truck based on the Linde X39 Diesel was presented at an exposition in Hannover on May 27, 2008. It used a 2.0 litre, {{convert|43|kW|abbr=on}} diesel internal combustion engine converted to use hydrogen as a fuel with the use of a compressor and [[Engineering:Fuel injection#Direct injection systems|direct injection]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-35668015_ITM |title=Hydrogen engines get a lift |publisher=Accessmylibrary.com |date=2008-10-01 |access-date=2010-12-12}}</ref><ref name="HyICE">[https://www.hfpeurope.org/uploads/700/836/2005_HFP_Brussels_HyICE.pdf HyICE]{{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In 2013 there were over 4,000 [[Engineering:Fuel cell forklift|fuel cell forklift]]s used in [[Finance:Material handling|material handling]] in the US.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130821025808/http://www.fuelcells.org/pdfs/FuelCellForkliftsGainGround.pdf Press release: "Fuel Cell Forklifts Gain Ground"], fuelcells.org, July 9, 2013</ref> As of 2024, approximately 50,000 hydrogen forklifts are in operation worldwide (the bulk of which are in the U.S.), as compared with 1.2 million battery electric forklifts that were purchased in 2021.<ref>Barnard, Michael. [https://cleantechnica.com/2024/01/02/on-hydrogen-forklifts-bitcoin-mining-and-green-fertilizer "On Hydrogen Forklifts, Bitcoin Mining and Green Fertilizer"], ''CleanTechnica'', January 2, 2024</ref>

Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum powered forklifts, as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts.<ref name=Report>[http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-and-chinese-forklift-industry-report-2014-2016-281752401.html "Global and Chinese Forklift Industry Report, 2014-2016"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129020439/http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-and-chinese-forklift-industry-report-2014-2016-281752401.html |date=2014-11-29 }}, Research and Markets, November 6, 2014</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/forklift_anl_esd.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217104928/http://www2.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/forklift_anl_esd.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Full Fuel-Cycle Comparison of Forklift Propulsion Systems|archive-date=February 17, 2013}}</ref> Fuel-cell-powered forklifts can be refueled in 3 minutes. They can be used in refrigerated warehouses, as their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures. The fuel cell units are often designed as drop-in replacements.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.still.co.uk/fuel-cell-technology-uk.0.0.html|title=Fuel cell technology|access-date=30 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203104905/http://www.still.co.uk/fuel-cell-technology-uk.0.0.html|archive-date=3 December 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://graftechaet.com/getattachment/065811d2-720e-40c6-b236-0440c4d90d76/OFCC-Forklift-Case-Study.aspx|title=Creating Innovative Graphite Solutions for Over 125 Years|work=GrafTech International|access-date=30 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206072419/http://www.graftechaet.com/getattachment/065811d2-720e-40c6-b236-0440c4d90d76/OFCC-Forklift-Case-Study.aspx|archive-date=6 December 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Rockets===
[[File:Centaur Rocket Engine - GPN-2000-000387.jpg|thumb|[[Engineering:Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur (rocket stage)]] was the first to use liquid hydrogen]]
Many large rockets use [[Chemistry:Liquid hydrogen|liquid hydrogen]] as fuel, with [[Physics:Liquid oxygen|liquid oxygen]] as an oxidizer (LH2/LOX). An advantage of hydrogen rocket fuel is the high effective exhaust velocity compared to [[Chemistry:Kerosene|kerosene]]/[[Astronomy:LOX|LOX]] or UDMH/NTO engines. According to the [[Tsiolkovsky rocket equation]], a rocket with higher exhaust velocity uses less propellant to accelerate. Also the [[Physics:Energy density|energy density]] of hydrogen is greater than any other fuel.<ref name="H2">College of the Desert, “Module 1, Hydrogen Properties”, Revision 0, December 2001 [http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f12/fcm01r0.pdf Hydrogen Properties] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701144015/https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f12/fcm01r0.pdf |date=2017-07-01 }}. Retrieved 2015-10-05.</ref> LH2/LOX also yields the greatest efficiency in relation to the amount of propellant consumed, of any known rocket propellant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/hydrogen_fuel_of_choice.html|title=NASA - Liquid Hydrogen--the Fuel of Choice for Space Exploration|website=www.nasa.gov|access-date=15 April 2018|archive-date=8 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208130412/https://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/hydrogen_fuel_of_choice.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

A disadvantage of LH2/LOX engines is the low density and low temperature of liquid hydrogen, which means bigger and insulated and thus heavier fuel tanks are needed. This increases the rocket's structural mass which reduces its delta-v significantly. Another disadvantage is the poor storability of LH2/LOX-powered rockets: Due to the constant hydrogen boil-off, the rocket must be fueled shortly before launch, which makes cryogenic engines unsuitable for ICBMs and other rocket applications with the need for short launch preparations.

Overall, the delta-v of a hydrogen stage is typically not much different from that of a dense fuelled stage, but the weight of a hydrogen stage is much less, which makes it particularly effective for upper stages, since they are carried by the lower stages. For first stages, dense fuelled rockets in studies may show a small advantage, due to the smaller vehicle size and lower air drag.<ref>Sutton, George P. and Oscar Biblarz. [http://web.mit.edu/e_peters/Public/Rockets/Rocket_Propulsion_Elements.pdf ''Rocket Propulsion Elements''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102204553/http://web.mit.edu/e_peters/Public/Rockets/Rocket_Propulsion_Elements.pdf |date=2013-01-02 }}, Seventh edition, John Wiley & Sons (2001), p. 257, {{ISBN|0-471-32642-9}}</ref>

LH2/LOX were also used in the [[Engineering:Space Shuttle|Space Shuttle]] to run the fuel cells that power the electrical systems.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/fc_shuttle.html |title=Fuel cell use in the Space Shuttle |publisher=NASA |access-date=2012-02-17 |archive-date=2012-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125075553/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/fc_shuttle.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The byproduct of the fuel cell is water, which is used for drinking and other applications that require water in space.

=== Heavy trucks ===
The International Energy Agency’s 2022 net-zero emissions scenario sees hydrogen meeting approximately 30% of heavy truck energy demand in 2050, mainly for long-distance heavy freight (with battery electric power accounting for around 60%).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cozzi |first1=Laura |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/830fe099-5530-48f2-a7c1-11f35d510983/WorldEnergyOutlook2022.pdf |title=World Energy Outlook 2022 |last2=Gould |first2=Tim |publisher=International Energy Agency |pages=148}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>

[[Company:United Parcel Service|United Parcel Service]] began testing of a hydrogen powered delivery vehicle in 2017.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/ups-begins-testing-hydrogen-fuel-cell-delivery-truck/|title=UPS begins testing hydrogen fuel-cell delivery truck - Roadshow|work=Roadshow|access-date=May 7, 2017|archive-date=May 3, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503195209/https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/ups-begins-testing-hydrogen-fuel-cell-delivery-truck/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2020, [[Company:Hyundai Motor Company|Hyundai]] began commercial production of its [[Engineering:Hyundai Xcient|Xcient]] fuel cell trucks and shipped ten of them to {{wipe|Switzerland}}.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ryu|first=Jung|date=2020-07-07|title=Hyundai Starts Mass Production of Hydrogen Trucks|url=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2020/07/07/2020070701792.html|access-date=2020-09-26|website=The Chosun Ilbo|archive-date=2020-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925082413/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2020/07/07/2020070701792.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Hyundai XCIENT Fuel Cell Heads to Europe for Commercial Use|url=https://www.hyundai.news/eu/brand/hyundai-xcient-fuel-cell-heads-to-europe-for-commercial-use/|access-date=2020-09-26|website=Hyundai Media Newsroom|archive-date=2020-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925040152/https://www.hyundai.news/eu/brand/hyundai-xcient-fuel-cell-heads-to-europe-for-commercial-use/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=World's First Fuel Cell Heavy-Duty Truck, Hyundai XCIENT Fuel Cell, Heads to Europe for Commercial Use - Hyundai Motor Group TECH|url=https://tech.hyundaimotorgroup.com/press-release/worlds-first-fuel-cell-heavy-duty-truck-hyundai-xcient-fuel-cell-heads-to-europe-for-commercial-use/|access-date=2020-09-26|website=tech.hyundaimotorgroup.com|archive-date=2020-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810162444/https://tech.hyundaimotorgroup.com/press-release/worlds-first-fuel-cell-heavy-duty-truck-hyundai-xcient-fuel-cell-heads-to-europe-for-commercial-use/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2022 in Australia, five hydrogen fuel cell [[Engineering:Truck classification#Class 8|class 8]] trucks were placed into use to transport zinc from Sun Metals' Townsville mine to the Port of Townsville, Queensland, to be shipped around the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen powered prime movers to roll into Townsville |url=https://arena.gov.au/blog/hydrogen-powered-prime-movers-to-roll-into-townsville/ |access-date=2022-08-15 |website=Australian Renewable Energy Agency|date=10 November 2021 }}</ref>

==Internal combustion vehicle==<!-- This section is linked from [[Company:Ford Motor Company|Ford Motor Company]] -->
Hydrogen internal combustion engine cars are different from hydrogen fuel cell cars. The hydrogen internal combustion car is a slightly modified version of the traditional gasoline [[Earth:Internal combustion engine|internal combustion engine]] car. These hydrogen engines burn fuel in the same manner that gasoline engines do; the main difference is the exhaust product. Gasoline combustion results in [[Physics:Exhaust gas#Passenger car emissions summary|emissions]] of mostly [[Chemistry:Carbon dioxide|carbon dioxide]] and water, plus trace amounts of [[Chemistry:Carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]], {{NOx}}, particulates and unburned hydrocarbons,<ref>[https://www.epa.gov/emission-standards-reference-guide "Emission Standards Reference Guide for On-road and Nonroad Vehicles and Engines"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011104349/https://www.epa.gov/emission-standards-reference-guide |date=2020-10-11 }}, US EPA (2012), accessed October 9, 2020</ref> while the main exhaust product of hydrogen combustion is water vapor.

In 1807 François Isaac de Rivaz designed [[Engineering:De Rivaz engine|the first hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.h2cars.de/1_cardata/c214.htm|title=H2Mobility - Hydrogen Vehicles - netinform|access-date=30 May 2015|archive-date=2 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302032740/http://www.lbst.de/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1965, Roger E. Billings, then a high school student, converted a [[Engineering:Ford Model A (1927–1931)|Model A]] to run on hydrogen.<ref>[http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/index.php/1807-1986 "Hydrogen Fuel Cars 1807–1986"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331160336/http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/index.php/1807-1986/ |date=2016-03-31 }}, Hydrogen Cars Now, accessed April 7, 2016</ref> In 1970 Paul Dieges patented a modification to internal combustion engines which allowed a gasoline-powered engine to run on hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite patent|country=US|number=3844262|pubdate=1974-10-29|title=Vaporization of exhaust products in hydrogen-oxygen engine|inventor1-last=Dieges|inventor1-first=Paul Bertrand}}</ref>

Mazda has developed [[Engineering:Wankel engine|Wankel engine]]s burning hydrogen, which are used in the [[Engineering:Mazda RX-8 Hydrogen RE|Mazda RX-8 Hydrogen RE]]. The advantage of using an internal combustion engine, like Wankel and piston engines, is the lower cost of retooling for production.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsroom.mazda.com/en/publicity/release/2006/200602/060215.html|title=MAZDA NEWSROOM｜ Mazda Starts Leasing Rotary Hydrogen Vehicles｜NEWS RELEASES|website=Mazda News Releases|date=5 May 2019 |access-date=2020-08-30|archive-date=2021-01-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126072915/https://newsroom.mazda.com/en/publicity/release/2006/200602/060215.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Fuel cell==
{{Further|Physics:Fuel cell}}

===Fuel cell cost===
Hydrogen fuel cells are relatively expensive to produce, as their designs require rare substances, such as [[Chemistry:Platinum|platinum]], as a [[Chemistry:Catalyst|catalyst]].<ref name=RSC2>{{cite web|title=Fuel cell electric vehicles and hydrogen infrastructure: status 2012|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233987484|last1=Eberle|first1=Ulrich|first2=Bernd|last2=Mueller|first3=Rittmar|last3=von Helmolt|publisher=[[Organization:Royal Society of Chemistry|Royal Society of Chemistry]]|date=2012-07-15|access-date=2013-01-08|archive-date=2014-02-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209172012/http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233987484_Fuel_cell_electric_vehicles_and_hydrogen_infrastructure_status_2012?ev=prf_pub|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2014, former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimated that Toyota would initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold.<ref name=Cost2014/> In 2020, researchers at the University of Copenhagen's Department of Chemistry are developing a new type of catalyst that they hope will decrease the cost of fuel cells.<ref>{{Cite web|last=University of Copenhagen|date=24 August 2020|title=Fuel cells for hydrogen vehicles are becoming longer lasting|url=https://phys.org/news/2020-08-fuel-cells-hydrogen-vehicles-longer.html|access-date=2020-09-18|website=phys.org|archive-date=2020-09-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927171704/https://phys.org/news/2020-08-fuel-cells-hydrogen-vehicles-longer.html|url-status=live}}</ref> This new catalyst uses far less platinum because the platinum nano-particles are not coated over carbon which, in conventional hydrogen fuel cells, keeps the nano-particles in place but also causes the catalyst to become unstable and denatures it slowly, requiring even more platinum. The new technology uses durable nanowires instead of the nano-particles. "The next step for the researchers is to scale up their results so that the technology can be implemented in hydrogen vehicles."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rossmeisl|first=Jan|date=24 August 2020|title=Hydrogen vehicles might soon become the global norm|url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-08/uoc-hvm082120.php|access-date=2020-09-18|website=EurekAlert!|archive-date=2020-11-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101020931/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-08/uoc-hvm082120.php|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Freezing conditions===
The problems in early fuel-cell designs at low temperatures concerning range and cold start capabilities have been addressed so that they "cannot be seen as show-stoppers anymore".<ref>Telias, Gabriela ''et al.'' [http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy11osti/49105.pdf RD&D cooperation for the development of fuel cell hybrid and electric vehicles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903115906/http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy11osti/49105.pdf |date=2014-09-03 }}, NREL.gov, November 2010, accessed September 1, 2014</ref> Users in 2014 said that their fuel cell vehicles perform flawlessly in temperatures below zero, even with the heaters blasting, without significantly reducing range.<ref>LeSage, Jon. [http://green.autoblog.com/2014/02/06/toyota-says-freezing-temps-pose-zero-problems-for-fuel-cell-vehi/ Toyota says freezing temps pose zero problems for fuel cell vehicles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140801084210/http://green.autoblog.com/2014/02/06/toyota-says-freezing-temps-pose-zero-problems-for-fuel-cell-vehi/ |date=2014-08-01 }}, Autoblog.com, February 6, 2014</ref> Studies using neutron radiography on unassisted cold-start indicate ice formation in the cathode,<ref>Mishler, Jeff, Yun Wang, Partha P. Mukherjee, Rangachary Mukundan, and Rodney L. Borup, "Subfreezing operation of polymer electrolyte fuel cells: Ice formation and cell performance loss", ''Electrochimica Acta'', 65 (2012) pp. 127–133</ref> three stages in cold start<ref>Wang, Y. "Analysis of the Key Parameters in the Cold Start of Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells", ''J. Electrochem. Soc.'', 154 (2007) pp. B1041–B1048</ref> and Nafion ionic conductivity.<ref>Wang, Y, P. P. Mukherjee, J. Mishler, R. Mukundan, and R. L. Borup, “Cold start of polymer electrolyte fuel cells: Three-stage startup characterization”, ''Electrochimica Acta'', 55 (2010) pp. 2636–2644</ref> A parameter, defined as coulomb of charge, was also defined to measure cold start capability.<ref>Mishler, J., Y. Wang, R. Lujan, R. Mukundan, and R. L. Borup, "An Experimental Study of Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Operation at Sub-Freezing Temperatures", ''Journal of the Electrochemical Society'', 160 (6) pp. F514–F521 (2013)</ref>

===Service life===
The [[Social:Service life|service life]] of fuel cells is comparable to that of other vehicles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/progress07/v_0_introduction.pdf |title=EERE Service life 5000 hours |access-date=2010-12-12 |archive-date=2010-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527213934/http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/progress07/v_0_introduction.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Clarify|reason=a ship lasts 20 to 30 years which is much more hours than mentioned|date=May 2022}} [[Chemistry:Proton-exchange membrane|Polymer-electrolyte membrane]] (PEM) fuel cell service life is 7,300 hours under cycling conditions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/epact_743_fuel_cell_school_bus.pdf |title=Fuel Cell School Buses: Report to Congress |access-date=2010-12-12 |archive-date=2010-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224140725/http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/epact_743_fuel_cell_school_bus.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Hydrogen==
{{Further|Physics:Hydrogen economy}}
Hydrogen does not exist in convenient reservoirs or deposits like fossil fuels or [[Chemistry:Helium|helium]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.uky.edu/KGS/rocksmineral/core-month-10-2018.php |title=Helium in Central Kentucky? Cores from the Texaco No. 1 Kirby well, Garrard County, Ky |access-date=2018-12-12 |archive-date=2018-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215223700/https://www.uky.edu/KGS/rocksmineral/core-month-10-2018.php |url-status=live }}</ref> It is produced from feedstocks such as natural gas and biomass or electrolyzed from water.<ref name=zmorris>David Z. Morris. "[http://fortune.com/2015/10/21/japan-hydrogen-fuel/ Why Japan wants to transform into a 'hydrogen society'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404123538/http://fortune.com/2015/10/21/japan-hydrogen-fuel/ |date=2016-04-04 }}" ''Fortune (magazine)'', 21 October 2015. Quote: "Unlike gasoline, solar, or nuclear, hydrogen isn’t an energy source—just a method of energy storage. “Hydrogen is an energy carrier in the same sense that electricity is,” says David Keith"</ref> A suggested benefit of large-scale deployment of hydrogen vehicles is that it could lead to decreased emissions of greenhouse gases and ozone precursors.<ref name=Schultz>Schultz, M.G., Thomas Diehl, Guy P. Brasseur, and Werner Zittel. [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/302/5645/624 "Air Pollution and Climate-Forcing Impacts of a Global Hydrogen Economy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070828182004/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/302/5645/624 |date=2007-08-28 }}, ''Science'', October 24, 2003 302: 624-627</ref> However, as of 2014, 95% of hydrogen is made from [[Chemistry:Methane|methane]]. It can be produced by thermochemical or pyrolitic means using renewable feedstocks, but that is an expensive process.<ref name=Production/>

Renewable electricity can however be used to power the conversion of water into hydrogen: Integrated wind-to-hydrogen (power to gas) plants, using [[Physics:Electrolysis of water|electrolysis of water]], are exploring technologies to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with traditional energy sources.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/proj_wind_hydrogen.html|title=Wind-to-Hydrogen Project|date=September 2009|work=Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Research|publisher=National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy|access-date=7 January 2010|location=Golden, CO|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826043817/http://nrel.gov/hydrogen/proj_wind_hydrogen.html|archive-date=26 August 2009}}</ref> The challenges facing the use of hydrogen in vehicles include its storage on board the vehicle. As of September 2023, hydrogen cost $36 per kilogram at public fueling stations in California, 14 times as much per mile for a Mirai as compared with a Tesla Model 3.<ref>Agatie, Cristian. [https://www.autoevolution.com/news/hydrogen-cars-are-dead-as-projects-are-scrapped-and-refueling-prices-go-through-the-roof-221373.html "Hydrogen Cars Are Dead as Projects Are Scrapped and Refueling Prices Go Through the Roof"], ''Auto Evolution'', September 20, 2023</ref>

===Production===
{{Further|Chemistry:Hydrogen production}}
The molecular hydrogen needed as an onboard fuel for hydrogen vehicles can be obtained through many thermochemical methods utilizing [[Chemistry:Natural gas|natural gas]], [[Earth:Coal|coal]] (by a process known as coal gasification), liquefied petroleum gas, [[Biology:Biomass|biomass]] (biomass gasification), by a process called [[Chemistry:Thermolysis|thermolysis]], or as a microbial waste product called [[Chemistry:Biohydrogen|biohydrogen]] or Biological hydrogen production. 95% of hydrogen is produced using natural gas.<ref name=Stupendous>Suplee, Curt. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/16/AR2009111602668.html "Don't bet on a hydrogen car anytime soon"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604113305/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/16/AR2009111602668.html |date=2011-06-04 }}. ''Washington Post'', November 17, 2009</ref> Hydrogen can be produced from water by [[Chemistry:Electrolysis|electrolysis]] at working efficiencies of 65–70%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hyweb.de/Knowledge/w-i-energiew-eng3.html#3.4 |title= Chapter 3: Production of Hydrogen. Part 4: Production from electricity by means of electrolysis |work=HyWeb: Knowledge – Hydrogen in the Energy Sector |author= Werner Zittel |author2= Reinhold Wurster |publisher= Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik GmbH |date= 8 July 1996 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070207080325/http://www.hyweb.de/Knowledge/w-i-energiew-eng3.html#3.4 |archive-date= 7 February 2007}}</ref> Hydrogen can be made by chemical reduction using chemical hydrides or aluminum.<ref>L. Soler, J. Macanás, M. Muñoz, J. Casado. Journal of Power Sources 169 (2007) 144-149</ref> Current technologies for manufacturing hydrogen use energy in various forms, totaling between 25 and 50 percent of the higher heating value of the hydrogen fuel, used to produce, compress or liquefy, and transmit the hydrogen by pipeline or truck.<ref name="Kreith">F. Kreith, "Fallacies of a Hydrogen Economy: A Critical Analysis of Hydrogen Production and Utilization" in ''Journal of Energy Resources Technology'' (2004), 126: 249–257.</ref>

Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include the emission of greenhouse gasses, a consequence that would also result from the on-board reforming of methanol into hydrogen.<ref name="EFCF">Bossel, Ulf. [http://www.efcf.com/reports/E21.pdf "Does a Hydrogen Economy Make Sense?"], {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724184256/http://www.efcf.com/reports/E21.pdf|date=2008-07-24}} Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 94, No. 10, October 2006</ref> Hydrogen production using [[Engineering:Renewable energy|renewable energy]] resources would not create such emissions, but the scale of renewable energy production would need to be expanded to be used in producing hydrogen for a significant part of transportation needs.<ref name=DOE>{{cite web |url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/aer/txt/ptb1101.html |title=US Energy Information Administration, "World Primary Energy Production by Source, 1970–2004" |publisher=Eia.doe.gov |access-date=2010-12-12 |archive-date=2010-06-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602065736/http://www.eia.doe.gov/aer/txt/ptb1101.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In a few countries, renewable sources are being used more widely to produce energy and hydrogen. For example, Iceland is using [[Earth:Geothermal power|geothermal power]] to produce hydrogen,<ref>[http://www.detnews.com/2005/autosinsider/0501/14/autos-60181.htm Iceland's hydrogen buses zip toward oil-free economy] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120724042846/http://www.detnews.com/2005/autosinsider/0501/14/autos-60181.htm |date=2012-07-24 }}. Retrieved 17-July-2007.</ref> and {{wipe|Denmark}} is using wind.<ref>[http://www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/news/story?id=48873 First Danish Hydrogen Energy Plant Is Operational] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926231034/http://www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/news/story?id=48873 |date=2007-09-26 }}. Retrieved 17-July-2007.</ref>

===Storage===
{{Further|Physics:Hydrogen storage}}
[[Image:Blue diamond compressed hydrogen.jpg|thumb|upright|Compressed hydrogen storage mark]]
Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar (5,000 psi) and 700 bar (10,000 psi) is used for hydrogen tank systems in vehicles, based on type IV carbon-composite technology.<ref name=store>{{cite web|title=Fuel cell electric vehicles and hydrogen infrastructure: status 2012|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233987484|last1=Eberle|first1=Ulrich|first2=Bernd|last2=Mueller|first3=Rittmar|last3=von Helmolt|publisher=Energy & Environmental Science|access-date=2014-12-19|archive-date=2014-02-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209172012/http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233987484_Fuel_cell_electric_vehicles_and_hydrogen_infrastructure_status_2012?ev=prf_pub|url-status=live}}</ref>

Hydrogen has a very low volumetric [[Physics:Energy density|energy density]] at ambient conditions, compared with gasoline and other vehicle fuels.<ref name=lanz>{{cite web | url = http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f12/fcm01r0.pdf | title = Hydrogen Properties | last = Lanz | first = Walter | date = December 2001 | website = U.S. Department of Energy | publisher = College of the Desert | at = Energy Density | access-date = 2015-10-05 | quote = On this basis, hydrogen’s energy density is poor (since it has such low density) although its energy to weight ratio is the best of all fuels (because it is so light). | archive-date = 2017-07-01 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170701144015/https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f12/fcm01r0.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref> It must be stored in a vehicle either as a super-cooled liquid or as highly compressed gas, which require additional energy to accomplish.<ref name=zubrin121>{{cite book | last= Zubrin | first= Robert | year= 2007 | title= Energy Victory: Winning the War on Terror by Breaking Free of Oil | location= Amherst, New York | publisher= Prometheus Books | page= 121 | isbn= 978-1-59102-591-7}}</ref> In 2018, researchers at [[Earth:CSIRO|CSIRO]] in Australia powered a Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo with hydrogen separated from ammonia using a membrane technology. Ammonia is easier to transport safely in tankers than pure hydrogen.<ref>Mealey, Rachel. [http://www.abc.net.au/radio/programs/worldtoday/automotive-hydrogen-membranes-huge-breakthrough-for-cars/10089510 ”Automotive hydrogen membranes-huge breakthrough for cars"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610103856/https://www.abc.net.au/radio/programs/worldtoday/automotive-hydrogen-membranes-huge-breakthrough-for-cars/10089510 |date=2019-06-10 }}, ABC, August 8, 2018</ref>

===Infrastructure===<!-- This section is linked from [[Physics:Hydrogen economy|Hydrogen economy]] -->
[[Image:Hydrogen vehicle.jpg|thumb|Hydrogen car fueling]]
{{Further|Chemistry:Hydrogen infrastructure}}
{{Further|Physics:Hydrogen station}}
[[File:Hydrogen refueling.jpg|thumb|The refueling of a Hydrogen-powered vehicle. The vehicle is a Hyundai Nexo. Note the condensation around the handle; this is because of the hydrogen gas expanding, causing the handle to freeze.]]
To enable the delivery of hydrogen fuel to transport end-users, a broad range of investments are needed, including, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the "construction and operation of new port infrastructure, buffer storage, pipelines, ships, [[Physics:Hydrogen station|refueling stations]] and plants to convert the hydrogen into a more readily transportable commodity (and potentially back to hydrogen)".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cozzi |first1=Laura |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/830fe099-5530-48f2-a7c1-11f35d510983/WorldEnergyOutlook2022.pdf |title=World Energy Outlook 2022 |last2=Gould |first2=Tim |publisher=International Energy Agency |pages=400}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref> In particular, the IEA notes that refueling stations will be needed in locations that are suitable for long‐distance trucking such as industrial hubs and identifies the need for investment in airport infrastructure for the storage and delivery of hydrogen. The IEA deems the infrastructure requirements for hydrogen in shipping more challenging, drawing attention to the "need for major investments and co‐ordinated efforts among fuel suppliers, ports, shipbuilders and shippers".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Laura |first1=Cozzi |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/830fe099-5530-48f2-a7c1-11f35d510983/WorldEnergyOutlook2022.pdf |title=World Energy Outlook 2022 |last2=Goild |first2=Tim |publisher=International Energy Agency |pages=148–149}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>

{{as of|2021}}, there were 49 publicly accessible hydrogen refueling stations in the US, 48 of which were [[Engineering:California Hydrogen Highway|located in California]] (compared with 42,830 electric charging stations).<ref name=afdc>[https://afdc.energy.gov/stations/states Alternative Fueling Station Counts by State] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315024543/http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/stations_counts.html |date=2016-03-15}}, ''Alternative Fuels Data Center'', accessed March 18, 2016</ref><ref>Jones, Nicola. [http://www.piquenewsmagazine.com/whistler/whatever-happened-to-the-hydrogen-highway/Content?oid=2283903 "Whatever happened to the hydrogen highway?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312095018/http://www.piquenewsmagazine.com/whistler/whatever-happened-to-the-hydrogen-highway/content?oid=2283903 |date=2016-03-12 }}, ''Pique'', February 9, 2012, accessed March 17, 2016</ref> By 2017, there were 91 hydrogen fueling stations in Japan.<ref name="auto">Voelcker, John. [http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1110239_energy-use-for-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-higher-than-electrics-even-hybrids-analysis "Energy use for hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles: higher than electrics, even hybrids (analysis)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302032704/https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1110239_energy-use-for-hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-higher-than-electrics-even-hybrids-analysis |date=2021-03-02 }}, ''Green Car Reports'', May 4, 2017</ref>

===Codes and standards===
Hydrogen codes and standards, as well as codes and technical standards for [[Chemistry:Hydrogen safety|hydrogen safety]] and the [[Physics:Hydrogen storage|storage of hydrogen]], have been an institutional barrier to deploying [[Physics:Hydrogen technologies|hydrogen technologies]]. To enable the commercialization of hydrogen in consumer products, new codes and standards must be developed and adopted by federal, state and local governments.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/codes_standards.html |title=DOE codes and standards |publisher=Hydrogen.energy.gov |access-date=2011-01-31 |archive-date=2011-07-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719104208/http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/codes_standards.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Official support==

===U.S. initiatives===
Fuel cell buses are supported.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GSA's Transit Bus Program Awards Include First Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Bus Offerings |url=https://www.gsa.gov/about-us/newsroom/news-releases/gsas-transit-bus-program-awards-include-first-hydrogen-fuel-cell-electric-bus-offerings-12212021 |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=www.gsa.gov|date=21 December 2021 }}</ref>

The New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) has created incentives for hydrogen fuel cell electric trucks and buses.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Alternative Fuels Data Center: Hydrogen Laws and Incentives in New York |url=https://afdc.energy.gov/fuels/laws/HY?state=ny |access-date=2022-10-29 |website=afdc.energy.gov}}</ref>

==Criticism==
Critics claim the time frame for overcoming the technical and economic challenges to implementing wide-scale use of hydrogen in cars is likely to be at least several decades.<ref name="TechRev">{{cite web | url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2007/03/01/226486/hell-and-hydrogen/ | work=MIT Technology Review | title=Hell and Hydrogen | date=1 March 2007 | publisher=MIT | access-date=5 June 2020 | archive-date=31 July 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731213257/https://www.technologyreview.com/2007/03/01/226486/hell-and-hydrogen | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Meyers1">Meyers, Jeremy P. [http://www.electrochem.org/dl/interface/wtr/wtr08/wtr08_p36-39.pdf "Getting Back Into Gear: Fuel Cell Development After the Hype"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725081653/http://www.electrochem.org/dl/interface/wtr/wtr08/wtr08_p36-39.pdf |date=2011-07-25 }}. The Electrochemical Society ''Interface'', Winter 2008, pp. 36–39, accessed August 7, 2011</ref> They argue that the focus on the use of the hydrogen car is a dangerous detour from more readily available solutions to reducing the use of fossil fuels in vehicles.<ref>White, Charlie. [http://dvice.com/archives/2008/07/shift_hydrogen.php "Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are a fraud"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140619223554/http://www.dvice.com/archives/2008/07/shift_hydrogen.php |date=2014-06-19 }} Dvice TV, July 31, 2008</ref> In 2008, ''Wired News'' reported that "experts say it will be 40 years or more before hydrogen has any meaningful impact on gasoline consumption or global warming, and we can't afford to wait that long. In the meantime, fuel cells are diverting resources from more immediate solutions."<ref>Squatriglia, Chuck. [https://www.wired.com/cars/energy/news/2008/05/hydrogen?currentPage=1 "Hydrogen Cars Won't Make a Difference for 40 Years"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327161701/http://www.wired.com/cars/energy/news/2008/05/hydrogen?currentPage=1 |date=2014-03-27 }}, ''Wired'', May 12, 2008</ref>

In the 2006 documentary, ''[[Engineering:Who Killed the Electric Car?|Who Killed the Electric Car?]]'', former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph Romm said: "A hydrogen car is one of the least efficient, most expensive ways to reduce greenhouse gases."<ref name=Boyd>{{cite web|url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/staff/robert_boyd/story/16179.html |title=Hydrogen cars may be a long time coming |last=Boyd |first=Robert S. |date=May 15, 2007 |publisher=McClatchy Newspapers |access-date=9 May 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501193814/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/staff/robert_boyd/story/16179.html |archive-date=1 May 2009 }}</ref> He also argued that the cost to build out a nationwide network of hydrogen refueling stations would be prohibitive.<ref>{{cite book|last=Romm| first=Joseph| year=2004|title=The Hype about Hydrogen, Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the Climate|url=https://archive.org/details/hypeabouthydroge0000romm|url-access=registration| location=New York|publisher=Island Press|isbn=1-55963-703-X}} ({{ISBN|1-55963-703-X}}), Chapter 5</ref> He held the same views in 2014.<ref>Romm, Joseph. [http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/13/3467289/tesla-toyota-hydrogen-car/ "Tesla Trumps Toyota Part II: The Big Problem With Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821024547/http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/13/3467289/tesla-toyota-hydrogen-car/ |date=2014-08-21 }}, CleanProgress.com, August 13, 2014 and [http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/25/3470965/toyota-tesla-electric-vehicles-hydrogen-cars/ "Tesla Trumps Toyota 3: Why Electric Vehicles Are Beating Hydrogen Cars Today"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408233020/http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/25/3470965/toyota-tesla-electric-vehicles-hydrogen-cars/ |date=2015-04-08 }}, CleanProgress.com, August 25, 2014</ref><ref>Romm, Joseph. [http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/05/3467115/tesla-toyota-hydrogen-cars-batteries/ "Tesla Trumps Toyota: Why Hydrogen Cars Can't Compete with Pure Electric Cars"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821024845/http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/08/05/3467115/tesla-toyota-hydrogen-cars-batteries/ |date=2014-08-21 }}, CleanProgress.com, August 5, 2014</ref> In 2009, the ''{{wipe|Los Angeles Times}}'' wrote that "hydrogen is a lousy way to move cars."<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.latimes.com/classified/automotive/highway1/la-fi-neil13-2009feb13,0,6636491.story | title=Honda FCX Clarity: Beauty for beauty's sake | work={{wipe|Los Angeles Times}} | date=February 13, 2009 | access-date=11 March 2009 | first=Dan | last=Neil | archive-date=16 February 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090216112139/http://www.latimes.com/classified/automotive/highway1/la-fi-neil13-2009feb13,0,6636491.story | url-status=live }}</ref> [[Biography:Robert Zubrin|Robert Zubrin]], the author of ''Energy Victory'', stated: "Hydrogen is 'just about the worst possible vehicle fuel'".<ref name=Economist>Wrigglesworth, Phil. [https://www.economist.com/science/tq/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11999229 "The car of the perpetual future"'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170520141647/http://www.economist.com/science/tq/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11999229 |date=2017-05-20 }} September 4, 2008, retrieved on September 15, 2008</ref> ''[[Finance:The Economist|The Economist]]'' noted that most hydrogen is produced through steam methane reformation, which creates at least as much emission of carbon per mile as some of today's gasoline cars, but that if the hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it would surely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all-electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles."<ref name=Economist/> Over their lifetimes, hydrogen vehicles will emit more carbon than gasoline vehicles.<ref name=UCDavis>[http://www.digitaltrends.com/lifestyle/cars-lifestyle/hydrogen-cars-lifecycle-emits-more-carbon-than-gas-cars-study-says/ "Hydrogen Cars' Lifecycle Emits More Carbon Than Gas Cars, Study Says"], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106211628/http://www.digitaltrends.com/lifestyle/cars-lifestyle/hydrogen-cars-lifecycle-emits-more-carbon-than-gas-cars-study-says/ |date=2010-01-06 }} ''[[Company:Digital Trends|Digital Trends]]'', January 1, 2010</ref><ref name=Cox2014/> ''{{wipe|The Washington Post}}'' asked in 2009, "[W]hy would you want to store energy in the form of hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for a motor, when electrical energy is already waiting to be sucked out of sockets all over America and stored in auto batteries"?<ref name=Stupendous/><ref>Chatsko, Maxx. [http://www.fool.com/investing/general/2013/11/23/1-giant-obstacle-keeping-hydrogen-fuel-out-of-your.aspx "1 Giant Obstacle Keeping Hydrogen Fuel Out of Your Gas Tank"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126034837/http://www.fool.com/investing/general/2013/11/23/1-giant-obstacle-keeping-hydrogen-fuel-out-of-your.aspx |date=2013-11-26 }}, ''The Motley Fool'', November 23, 2013</ref>

Volkswagen's Rudolf Krebs said in 2013 that "no matter how excellent you make the cars themselves, the laws of physics hinder their overall efficiency. The most efficient way to convert energy to mobility is electricity." He elaborated: "Hydrogen mobility only makes sense if you use green energy", but ... you need to convert it first into hydrogen "with low efficiencies" where "you lose about 40 percent of the initial energy". You then must compress the hydrogen and store it under high pressure in tanks, which uses more energy. "And then you have to convert the hydrogen back to electricity in a fuel cell with another efficiency loss". Krebs continued: "in the end, from your original 100 percent of electric energy, you end up with 30 to 40 percent."<ref name=Blanco2013>Blanco, Sebastian. [http://green.autoblog.com/2013/11/20/vws-krebs-talks-hydrogen-says-most-efficient-way-to-convert/ "VW's Krebs talks hydrogen, says 'most efficient way to convert energy to mobility is electricity'"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131125032735/http://green.autoblog.com/2013/11/20/vws-krebs-talks-hydrogen-says-most-efficient-way-to-convert/ |date=2013-11-25 }}, ''AutoblogGreen'', November 20, 2013</ref> In 2015, ''CleanTechnica'' listed some of the disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles<ref>Brown, Nicholas. [http://cleantechnica.com/2015/06/26/hydrogen-cars-lost-much-support/ "Hydrogen Cars Lost Much of Their Support, But Why?"] {{Webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515090630/http://cleantechnica.com/2015/06/26/hydrogen%2Dcars%2Dlost%2Dmuch%2Dsupport/ |date=2016-05-15 }}, ''CleanTechnica'', June 26, 2015</ref><ref>Meyers, Glenn. [http://cleantechnica.com/2015/03/19/hydrogen-economy-boom-bust/ "Hydrogen Economy: Boom or Bust?"] {{Webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515091040/http://cleantechnica.com/2015/03/19/hydrogen%2Deconomy%2Dboom%2Dbust/ |date=2016-05-15 }}, ''CleanTechnica'', March 19, 2015</ref> A 2016 study in ''Energy'' by scientists at [[Organization:Stanford University|Stanford University]] and the Technical University of Munich concluded that, even assuming local hydrogen production, "investing in all-electric battery vehicles is a more economical choice for reducing carbon dioxide emissions".<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.pvbuzz.com/electric-cars-better| title=Battery electric cars are a better choice for emissions reduction| publisher=PVBuzz.com| date=15 November 2016| access-date=16 November 2016| archive-date=21 April 2017| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421152125/http://www.pvbuzz.com/electric-cars-better/| url-status=live}}</ref>

A 2017 analysis published in ''Green Car Reports'' concluded that the best hydrogen-fuel-cell vehicles consume "more than three times more electricity per mile than an electric vehicle ... generate more [[Earth:Greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas emissions]] than other powertrain technologies ... [and have] very high fuel costs. ... Considering all the obstacles and requirements for new infrastructure (estimated to cost as much as $400 billion), fuel-cell vehicles seem likely to be a niche technology at best, with little impact on U.S. oil consumption.<ref name="auto"/> The US Department of Energy agrees, for fuel produced by grid electricity via electrolysis, but not for most other pathways for generation.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/emissions_hydrogen.html| title=Alternative Fuels Data Center: Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Emissions| website=www.afdc.energy.gov| access-date=May 14, 2017| archive-date=April 20, 2017| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420115636/http://www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/emissions_hydrogen.html| url-status=live}}</ref> A 2019 video by ''Real Engineering'' noted that, notwithstanding the introduction of vehicles that run on hydrogen, using hydrogen as a fuel for cars does not help to reduce carbon emissions from transportation. The 95% of hydrogen still produced from fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, and producing hydrogen from water is an energy-consuming process. Storing hydrogen requires more energy either to cool it down to the liquid state or to put it into tanks under high pressure, and delivering the hydrogen to fueling stations requires more energy and may release more carbon. The hydrogen needed to move a FCV a kilometer costs approximately 8 times as much as the electricity needed to move a BEV the same distance.<ref>Ruffo, Gustavo Henrique. [https://insideevs.com/features/373145/video-compares-bev-fcevs-energy-efficient "This Video Compares BEVs to FCEVs and the More Efficient Is..."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026223013/https://insideevs.com/features/373145/video-compares-bev-fcevs-energy-efficient/ |date=2020-10-26 }}, InsideEVs.com, September 29, 2019</ref> Also in 2019, Katsushi Inoue, the president of Honda Europe, stated, "Our focus is on hybrid and electric vehicles now. Maybe hydrogen fuel cell cars will come, but that's a technology for the next era."<ref>Allen, James. [https://www.driving.co.uk/news/honda-embracing-electrified-cars-now-right-time "Honda: Now Is The Right Time to Embrace Electric Cars"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124203353/https://www.driving.co.uk/news/honda-embracing-electrified-cars-now-right-time/ |date=2020-11-24 }}, ''The Sunday Times'', November 4, 2019</ref>

Assessments since 2020 have concluded that hydrogen vehicles are still only 38% efficient, while battery EVs are from 80% to 95% efficient.<ref>{{cite web| last=Baxter| first=Tom| url=https://uk.news.yahoo.com/hydrogen-cars-wont-overtake-electric-111749065.html| title=Hydrogen cars won't overtake electric vehicles because they're hampered by the laws of science| work=The Conversation| date=3 June 2020| access-date=4 June 2020| archive-date=31 July 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731213342/https://uk.news.yahoo.com/hydrogen-cars-wont-overtake-electric-111749065.html| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.slashgear.com/833231/heres-why-hydrogen-cars-were-doomed-to-fail |title=Here's Why Hydrogen Cars Were Doomed to Fail |last1=Fernandez |first1=Ray |date=April 14, 2022 |website=SlashGear |access-date=April 16, 2022}}</ref> A 2021 assessment by ''CleanTechnica'' concluded that while hydrogen cars are far less efficient than electric cars, the vast majority of hydrogen being produced is polluting grey hydrogen, and delivering hydrogen would require building a vast and expensive new infrastructure, the remaining two "advantages of fuel cell vehicles – longer range and fast fueling times – are rapidly being eroded by improving battery and charging technology."<ref name=Morris/> A 2022 study in ''[[Engineering:Nature Electronics|Nature Electronics]]'' agreed.<ref>Plötz, Patrick. [https://doi.org/10.1038/s41928-021-00706-6 "Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport"], ''[[Engineering:Nature Electronics|Nature Electronics]]'', vol. 5, pp. 8–10, January 31, 2022</ref> Another 2022 article, in ''Recharge News'', stated that ships are more likely to be powered by ammonia or methanol than hydrogen.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Parkes (627156db9d68b) |first=Rachel |date=2022-05-03 |title=Liquid hydrogen as shipping fuel – Pioneering intercontinental H2 carrier gets technical green light |url=https://www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/liquid-hydrogen-as-shipping-fuel-pioneering-intercontinental-h2-carrier-gets-technical-green-light/2-1-1211897 |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=Recharge}}</ref> Also in 2022, Germany’s Fraunhofer Institute concluded that hydrogen is unlikely to play a major role in road transport.<ref name="Collins l_collins"/>

A 2023 study by the [[Organization:Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research|Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research]] (CICERO) estimated that leaked hydrogen has a global warming effect 11.6 times stronger than CO₂.<ref name=CICERO/>

==Safety and supply==
{{Main|Chemistry:Hydrogen safety}}
Hydrogen fuel is hazardous because of the low ignition energy (see also [[Chemistry:Autoignition temperature|autoignition temperature]]) and high combustion energy of hydrogen, and because it tends to leak easily from tanks due to its small molecular size.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Utgikar | first1 = Vivek P | last2 = Thiesen | first2 = Todd| title = Safety of compressed hydrogen fuel tanks: Leakage from stationary vehicles | journal = Technology in Society | year = 2005| volume = 27 | issue = 3 | pages = 315–320 | doi  = 10.1016/j.techsoc.2005.04.005}}</ref> [[Chemistry:Hydrogen embrittlement|Hydrogen embrittlement]] is also a concern for the storage tank material, as well as the car parts surrounding the tank if chronic leakage is present. Hydrogen is odorless so leakages are not easily picked up without specialized detectors.<ref>Lee, Jonathan A. [https://core.ac.uk/reader/84914440 "Hydrogen Embrittlement"], NASA, April 2016</ref>

Explosions at hydrogen filling stations have been reported.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://evtalk.co.nz/exploding-hydrogen-station-leads-to-fcv-halt/| title=Exploding hydrogen station leads to FCV halt| publisher=EV Talk| first=Geoff| last=Dobson| date=12 June 2019| access-date=13 June 2019| archive-date=23 June 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623185430/http://evtalk.co.nz/exploding-hydrogen-station-leads-to-fcv-halt/| url-status=live}}</ref> Hydrogen fuelling stations generally receive deliveries of hydrogen by truck from hydrogen suppliers. An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fuelling stations.<ref>{{cite news| last=Woodrow| first=Melanie| url=https://abc7news.com/bay-area-hydrogen-shortage-after-explosion/5328775| title=Bay Area experiences hydrogen shortage after explosion| publisher=ABC news| date=3 June 2019| access-date=13 June 2019| archive-date=8 June 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608025606/https://abc7news.com/bay-area-hydrogen-shortage-after-explosion/5328775/| url-status=live}}</ref>

==Comparison with other types of alternative fuel vehicle==
{{main|Engineering:Alternative fuel vehicle}}
Hydrogen vehicles compete with various proposed alternatives to the modern fossil fuel [[Earth:Internal combustion engine|internal combustion engine]] (ICE) vehicle infrastructure.<ref name=RSC2/>

===Natural gas===
ICE-based [[Chemistry:Compressed natural gas|compressed natural gas]](CNG), [[Physics:HCNG|HCNG]], LPG or [[Chemistry:Liquefied natural gas|LNG]] vehicles, collectively called natural gas vehicles (NGVs), use [[Chemistry:Methane|methane]] harvested from [[Chemistry:Natural gas|natural gas]] or [[Physics:Biogas|Biogas]] as a fuel source. Methane has a higher [[Physics:Energy density|energy density]] than hydrogen, and NGVs from Biogas are nearly carbon neutral.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epa.gov/ncer/p3/press/04_22_07.html|title=Car Fueled With Biogas From Cow Manure: WWU Students Convert Methane Into Natural Gas|access-date=30 May 2015|archive-date=14 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514101650/http://epa.gov/ncer/p3/press/04_22_07.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Unlike hydrogen vehicles, CNG vehicle technology has been available for many decades, and there is sufficient infrastructure in existing filling stations to provide both commercial and home refueling. Worldwide, there were 14.8 million natural gas vehicles by the end of 2011, mostly in the form of [[Engineering:Bi-fuel vehicle|bi-fuel vehicle]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ngvjournal.dreamhosters.com/en/statistics/item/911-worldwide-ngv-statistics |title=Worldwide NGV Statistics |publisher=NGV Journal |access-date=2012-04-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220030004/http://www.ngvjournal.dreamhosters.com/en/statistics/item/911-worldwide-ngv-statistics |archive-date=2012-02-20 }}</ref> The other use for natural gas is in [[Chemistry:Steam reforming|steam reforming]] which is the common way to produce hydrogen gas for use in electric cars with fuel cells.<ref name=Realising/>

Methane is also an alternative rocket fuel.<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=The wild physics of Elon Musk's methane-guzzling super-rocket |magazine=Wired UK |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/spacex-raptor-engine-starship |access-date=2022-05-16 |issn=1357-0978}}</ref>

=== Plug-in electric  ===
{{main|Engineering:Plug-in electric vehicle}}
==== Plug-in hybrid ====
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are [[Engineering:Hybrid electric vehicle|hybrid electric vehicle]]s that can be plugged into the electric grid to recharge the [[Engineering:Electric vehicle battery|on-board battery pack]], rather than relying purely on the internal combustion engine to drive a [[Engineering:Electric generator|generator]] to power the [[Physics:Electric motor|electric motor]] and battery pack as in conventional hybrid vehicles. The PHEV concept augments the vehicle's [[Physics:Fuel efficiency|fuel efficiency]] by allowing more EV mode driving, at the same time alleviating [[Engineering:Range anxiety|range anxiety]] by having the internal combustion engine (typically a [[Engineering:Turbocharger|turbo]] petrol engine) as an auxiliary powerplant or [[Engineering:Range extender|range extender]].

==== Battery electric ====
{{main|Engineering:Battery electric vehicle}}
In the light road vehicle segment, by 2023, 26&nbsp;million battery electric vehicles had been sold worldwide,<ref name=Outlook2023/> and there were 65,730 public [[Engineering:Charging station|charging station]]s in North America, in addition to the availability of home and workplace charging via [[Engineering:AC power plugs and sockets|AC power plugs and sockets]].<ref>[https://afdc.energy.gov/stations/#/find/nearest?fuel=ELEC "Alternative Fueling Station Locator"], Alternative Fuels Data Center, U.S. Department of Energy, accessed September 9, 2023</ref> Long distance [[Engineering:Electric truck|electric truck]]s require more [[Engineering:Megawatt Charging System|megawatt charging infrastructure]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-30 |title=Megawatt charging network for long-haul trucks eeNews Power |url=https://www.eenewspower.com/en/megawatt-charging-network-for-long-haul-trucks/ |access-date=2022-05-16 |website=EENewsEurope}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Physics:Airship|Airship]]
*Alternative fuel car
*[[Engineering:Bivalent (engine)|Bivalent engine]]
*[[Engineering:Fuel gas-powered scooter|Fuel gas-powered scooter]]
*[[Earth:Carbon-neutral fuel|Carbon-neutral fuel]]
*[[Engineering:Alternative fuel vehicle#Formic acid|Formic acid vehicle]]
*''Hell and High Water''
*Hydrogen transport
*[[Physics:Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell|Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell]] 
*[[Physics:Hydrogen economy|Hydrogen economy]]
*''[[Earth:The Hype about Hydrogen|The Hype about Hydrogen]]''
*Tribrid vehicle
*World Green Car
*[[Physics:Hydrogen fuel enhancement|Hydrogen fuel enhancement]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Hydrogen vehicles}}
*[http://www.fuelcellpartnership.net/ California Fuel Cell Partnership homepage]
*[http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/ Fuel Cell Today - Market-based intelligence on the fuel cell industry]
*[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/ U.S. Dept. of Energy hydrogen pages]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060922205719/http://www.ca.sandia.gov/crf/research/combustionEngines/PFI.php Sandia Corporation – Hydrogen internal combustion engine description]
*[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-11297410 Inside world's first hydrogen-powered production car] BBC News, 14 September 2010
*[https://arena.gov.au/blog/toyota-altona-plant-breathes-new-life-with-renewables/ Toyota Ecopark Hydrogen Demonstration] ARENAWIRE, 22 March 2019

{{Alternative propulsion}}
{{Emerging technologies|transport=yes}}
{{Automobile configuration}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hydrogen Vehicle}}
[[Category:Automotive technologies]]
[[Category:Hydrogen technologies]]

{{Sourceattribution|Hydrogen vehicle}}