View source for Physics:High Temperature Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell

{{Short description|Type of electrochemical capable of generating fuel through proton exchange}}
High Temperature Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cells (HT-PEMFC), also known as High Temperature Polymer Electrolyte Membrane fuel cells, are a type of [[Physics:Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell|PEM fuel cells]] which can be operated at temperatures between 120 and 200°C.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Araya|first=Samuel Simon|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/857436369|title=High temperature PEM fuel cells - degradation & durability : dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and Science at Aalborg University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy|date=2012|publisher=Aalborg University, Department of Energy Technology|isbn=978-87-92846-14-3|location=Aalborg|oclc=857436369}}</ref> HT-PEM fuel cells are used for both stationary and portable applications.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mandel |first1=Ethan |title=US hydrogen technology company and DoE to work on HT-PEM fuel cells |url=https://www.h2bulletin.com/us-hydrogen-technology-company-and-doe-to-work-on-ht-pem-fuel-cells/ |work=H2 Bulletin |date=2 March 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210708062902/https://www.h2bulletin.com/us-hydrogen-technology-company-and-doe-to-work-on-ht-pem-fuel-cells/ |archive-date=8 July 2021}}</ref> The HT-PEM fuel cell is usually supplied with hydrogen-rich gas like reformate gas formed by reforming of [[Chemistry:Methanol|methanol]], [[Chemistry:Ethanol|ethanol]], [[Chemistry:Natural gas|natural gas]] or LPG. 

== Science ==

=== Overview ===
HT-PEM fuel cell was developed in 1995 for operation at higher cell temperatures aiming at lower sensitivity of PEM fuel cells regarding impurities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Araya|first1=Samuel Simon|last2=Zhou|first2=Fan|last3=Liso|first3=Vincenzo|last4=Sahlin|first4=Simon Lennart|last5=Vang|first5=Jakob Rabjerg|last6=Thomas|first6=Sobi|last7=Gao|first7=Xin|last8=Jeppesen|first8=Christian|last9=Kær|first9=Søren Knudsen|date=2016|title=A comprehensive review of PBI-based high temperature PEM fuel cells|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360319916327380|journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy|language=en|volume=41|issue=46|pages=21310–21344|doi=10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.09.024}}</ref> Thus HT-PEM fuel cell technology is one of the youngest fuel cell types and HT-PEM fuel cell systems are produced since the 21st century by several companies.

The membrane consists of an acid and temperature resistant polymer which has the ability to uptake acid which acts as electrolyte.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schmidt|first=Thomas J.|date=2019|title=Durability and Degradation in High-Temperature Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells|url=https://doi.org/10.1149/1.2214541|journal=ECS Transactions|language=en|volume=1|issue=8|pages=19–31|doi=10.1149/1.2214541|s2cid=138922384|issn=1938-6737}}</ref> Commonly polybenzimidazole (PBI) is used as membrane and Phosphoric acid is used as electrolyte.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Yu|first1=S.|last2=Xiao|first2=L.|last3=Benicewicz|first3=B. C.|date=2008|title=Durability Studies of PBI-based High Temperature PEMFCs|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/fuce.200800024|journal=Fuel Cells|language=en|volume=8|issue=3–4|pages=165–174|doi=10.1002/fuce.200800024|s2cid=97141602 |issn=1615-6854}}</ref> The HT-PEM fuel cell technology is similar to Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC), but mainly differs in the membrane which is used in HT-PEM fuel cell and makes portable applications possible for HT-PEM fuel cells.
[[File:PBI Membrane HT-PEM.jpg|thumb|Phosphoric acid doped PBI membrane for HT-PEM fuel cell]]

Whereas the common PEM fuel cell, also called Low Temperature Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell (LT-PEM), must usually be operated with hydrogen with high purity of more than 99.9 % the HT-PEM fuel cell is less sensitive to impurities and thus is typically operated with reformate gas with hydrogen concentration of about 50 to 75 %. In contrast to LT-PEM fuel cell, which is sensitive to carbon monoxide concentration of several parts per million, HT-PEM fuel cells are operated at carbon monoxide concentrations up to about 3 Vol-%.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Eberhardt|first1=S. H.|last2=Lochner|first2=T.|last3=Büchi|first3=F. N.|last4=Schmidt|first4=T. J.|date=2015|title=Correlating Electrolyte Inventory and Lifetime of HT-PEFC by Accelerated Stress Testing|url=https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0591512jes|journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society|language=en|volume=162|issue=12|pages=F1367–F1372|doi=10.1149/2.0591512jes|hdl=20.500.11850/104873 |s2cid=100661952 |issn=0013-4651|doi-access=free|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Usually HT-PEM fuel cells are operated at cell temperature of 150 to 180 °C.

The low sensitity to impurities allows the use of fuels like methanol, ethanol, natural gas, LPG, DME, etc. which are reformed in a reformer to hydrogen rich reformate gas whereat the fuel cell system design is simple without the need of purification steps for purifying the reformate gas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Boaventura|first=Marta|date=2016|title=The influence of impurities in high temperature polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells performance|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360319916303342|journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy|language=en|volume=41|issue=43|pages=19771–19780|doi=10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.06.201|hdl=10216/103265|issn=0360-3199|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

Because of the low sensitivity to impurities and because of proton conductivity of the membrane the [[Physics:Membrane electrode assembly|Membrane electrode assembly]] which is used for HT-PEM fuel cell can also be used for hydrogen separation to separate ultrapure hydrogen efficiently from diluted or impure hydrogen containing gases.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Proton-Conductive Membrane|url=https://www.basf.com/global/en/who-we-are/organization/group-companies/BASF_New-Business-GmbH/our-solutions/proton-conductive-membrane.html|access-date=9 July 2021|publisher=BASF}}</ref> 

The balance-of-plant system efficiency for methanol fueled HT-PEM fuel cell systems is typically between 35 and 45 % and can reach up to about 55 % depending on system design and operating conditions. Regarding cell efficiency up to 63 % can be reached. 

As the steam reforming of methanol is more simple and efficient (catalyst bed temperature below 280°C) compared to reforming of other fuels and because of the low cost and high purity of conventional methanol and renewable methanol (e.g. made from waste or renewable power) as well as because of the simple storage of methanol, most HT-PEM fuel cells are operated with methanol. The methanol fueled HT-PEM fuel cell is the mostly used type of [[Chemistry:Reformed methanol fuel cell|Reformed Methanol fuel cell]] (RMFC).

=== Strengths ===

* No water management for humidification of the membrane is needed compared to LT-PEM fuel cell.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bandlamudi|first=Vamsikrishna|date=2018|title=The effect of flow field design on the degradation mechanisms and long term stability of HT-PEM fuel cell|url=http://etd.uwc.ac.za/xmlui/handle/11394/6752|language=en}}</ref>
* Waste heat of the stack (130 to 180 °C) can be used making combined heat and power (CHP) possible for further usage of the heat in contrast to LT-PEM fuel cell which has too low waste heat temperature below 80 °C.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Najafi|first=Behzad|date=2015|title=Long-term performance analysis of an HT-PEM fuel cell based micro-CHP system: Operational strategies|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S030626191500327X|journal=Applied Energy|language=en|volume=147|pages=582–592|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.03.043|hdl=11311/928955 |issn=0306-2619|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
* Simple cooling of stack is possible because of higher stack temperature compared to LT-PEM fuel cell (heat exchange surface, cooling power).<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Nasri|first1=Mounir|last2=Dickinson|first2=Dave|title=2014 Ninth International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies (EVER) |chapter=Thermal management of fuel cell-driven vehicles using HT-PEM and hydrogen storage |date=2014|chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6844107|location=Monte-Carlo|publisher=IEEE|pages=1–6|doi=10.1109/EVER.2014.6844107|isbn=978-1-4799-3787-5|s2cid=33849240}}</ref>
* Various fuels which can be reformed in a reformer to hydrogen rich gas can be used (e.g. methanol, ethanol, propanol, bio-butanol, bio-glycerol, methane, ethane, propane, butane, [[Chemistry:Polyoxymethylene dimethyl ethers|OME]], gasoline, [[Chemistry:Ammonia|ammonia]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2016-11-02|title=Comparatative analysis on various reformers supplied with different fuels and integrated with high temperature PEM fuel cells|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009250916303591|journal=Chemical Engineering Science|language=en|volume=154|pages=90–99|doi=10.1016/j.ces.2016.06.065|issn=0009-2509|last1=Ellamla|first1=Harikishan R.|last2=Bujlo|first2=Piotr|last3=Sita|first3=Cordellia|last4=Pasupathi|first4=Sivakumar|bibcode=2016ChEnS.154...90E }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Palma|first1=Vincenzo|last2=Ruocco|first2=Concetta|last3=Cortese|first3=Marta|last4=Martino|first4=Marco|date=2020|title=Bioalcohol Reforming: An Overview of the Recent Advances for the Enhancement of Catalyst Stability|journal=Catalysts|language=en|volume=10|issue=6|pages=665|doi=10.3390/catal10060665|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cinti|first1=Giovanni|last2=Liso|first2=Vincenzo|last3=Sahlin|first3=Simon Lennart|last4=Araya|first4=Samuel Simon|date=2020|title=System Design and Modeling of a High Temperature PEM Fuel Cell Operated with Ammonia as a Fuel|journal=Energies|language=en|volume=13|issue=18|pages=4689|doi=10.3390/en13184689|doi-access=free}}</ref>
* Simple system design is possible as no purification step for methanol fueled HT-PEM fuel cells is needed.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thomas|first=Sobi|url=https://vbn.aau.dk/en/publications/operational-strategies-for-longer-durability-of-ht-pem-fuel-cells|title=Operational strategies for longer durability of HT-PEM fuel cells operating on reformed methanol|date=2017|publisher=Aalborg Universitetsforlag|isbn=978-87-7210-119-4|language=English}}</ref>
* Use of plastic components and elastomer seals in the stack is possible in contrast to SOFC fuel cells.
* Higher system efficiency of methanol fueled HT-PEM fuel cell systems (35 to 45 %) compared to Direct Methanol Fuel Cell, DMFC (20 to 30 %). Low methanol fuel consumption.
* No need for high methanol fuel purity for methanol fueled HT-PEM fuel cell system compared to DMFC.
* Higher lifetime of methanol fueled HT-PEM fuel cell system than for DMFC system is possible.
* Pure fuels or water-fuel mixtures are applicable (depending on fuel cell system design).
* Use of renewable fuels is possible.
* Cold storage temperatures below 0 °C are no problem for the fuel cell membrane in contrast to DMFC and LT-PEM fuel cell.
* Hydrogen with low purity can be used as fuel. Hydrogen with low purity is cheaper than high purity hydrogen which has to be usually used for LT-PEM fuel cell.
* The use of fuels like methanol makes cheaper fuel costs per kWh possible compared with hydrogen (e.g. LT-PEM fuel cells) or diesel (e.g. gensets) as fuel.

=== Weaknesses ===

* Longer start-up time compared to LT-PEM fuel cell (time for heating of stack and reformer). So hybridization with larger battery than for LT-PEM fuel cell systems is sometimes necessary.
* A system component for stack heating during start-up is necessary in contrast to LT-PEM fuel cell and DMFC.
* More cells needed compared to LT-PEM fuel cell for reaching high power output or same efficiency as for hydrogen LT-PEM fuel cell because of inferior characteristic curve of HT-PEM fuel cell: Higher stack costs, stack volume and stack weight compared to LT-PEM fuel cell. Technologies for reaching better characteristic curve properties are in basic research state.
* Higher platinum content (ca. 8 - 14 g Pt per kW) than in LT-PEM fuel cells is used in the [[Physics:Membrane electrode assembly|Membrane Electrode Assembly]]:  Platinum recycling to be considered. Development of platinum free electrodes for HT-PEM fuel cells is in basic research state.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Haider|first1=Rizwan|last2=Wen|first2=Yichan|last3=Ma|first3=Zi-Feng|last4=Wilkinson|first4=David P.|last5=Zhang|first5=Lei|last6=Yuan|first6=Xianxia|last7=Song|first7=Shuqin|last8=Zhang|first8=Jiujun|date=2021|title=High temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cells: progress in advanced materials and key technologies|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2021/cs/d0cs00296h|journal=Chemical Society Reviews|language=en|volume=50|issue=2|pages=1138–1187|doi=10.1039/D0CS00296H|pmid=33245736|s2cid=227191893|issn=1460-4744}}</ref>
* When organic fuels are used carbon dioxide and perhaps traces of carbon monoxide are emitted (concentration depending on system design, typically CO concentration by far lower than emitted from combustion engines).
* Some system components must be able to resist higher temperatures than in LT-PEM fuel cell and DMFC which limits the choice of applicable materials (e.g. polymers with resistance up to 120 - 180 °C).

== Applications ==
HT-PEM fuel cell systems are used for stationary and portable applications.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Neophytides|first1=Stylianos|last2=Daletou|first2=Maria K.|last3=Athanasopoulos|first3=Nikolaos|last4=Gourdoupi|first4=Nora|last5=Castro|first5=Emory De|last6=Schautz|first6=Max|date=2017|title=High Temperature PEM Fuel Cell Stacks with Advent TPS Meas|url=https://www.e3s-conferences.org/articles/e3sconf/abs/2017/04/e3sconf_espc2017_10002/e3sconf_espc2017_10002.html|journal=E3S Web of Conferences|language=en|volume=16|pages=10002|doi=10.1051/e3sconf/20171610002|issn=2267-1242|doi-access=free}}</ref> For example methanol fueled HT-PEM fuel cells are used as replacement of generators (e.g. off-grid applications, backup power, [[Emergency power system|emergency-power supply]], [[Engineering:Auxiliary power unit|auxiliary power unit]]) and for range extension of electric vehicles (e.g. sports car [[Engineering:Gumpert Nathalie|Gumpert Nathalie]]). Typically the HT-PEM fuel cell system is used in hybrid operation with a battery. HT-PEM fuel cell systems fueled with natural gas are also used for [[Physics:Cogeneration|combined heat and power]] (CHP) applications in buildings.

Manufacturers of fuel cell systems containing HT-PEM fuel cell technology:

* Advent Technologies (USA)
* Blue World Technologies (Denmark)<ref>{{cite news |title=Blue World Technologies partners with Alfa Laval on methanol fuel-cell system for shipping |url=https://www.greencarcongress.com/2021/04/20210420-blueworld.html |work=Green Car Congress |date=20 April 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210708053729/https://www.greencarcongress.com/2021/04/20210420-blueworld.html#selection-281.0-293.13 |archive-date=8 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Methanol fuel cell company Blue World acquiring Danish Power Systems |url=https://www.greencarcongress.com/2021/01/20210114-blueworld.html |publisher=Green Car Congress |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210708052741/https://www.greencarcongress.com/2021/01/20210114-blueworld.html |archive-date=8 July 2021 |date=14 January 2021}}</ref>
* Siqens (Germany)

== See also ==

* [[Chemistry:Reformed methanol fuel cell|Reformed Methanol Fuel Cell (RMFC)]]
* [[Chemistry:Steam reforming|Steam reforming]]
* [[Chemistry:Methanol reformer|Methanol reformer]]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Proton]]

{{Sourceattribution|High Temperature Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell}}