View source for Philosophy:Intrinsic value (ethics)

{{short description|Ethical or philosophic value that an object has "in itself" or "for its own sake"}}
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In [[Philosophy:Ethics|ethics]], '''intrinsic value''' is a [[Philosophy:Intrinsic and extrinsic properties|property]] of anything that is [[Philosophy:Value (ethics)|valuable]] on its own. Intrinsic value is in contrast to instrumental value (also known as extrinsic value), which is a property of anything that derives its value from a relation to another intrinsically valuable thing.<ref>[https://courses.washington.edu/envir100/readings/ethics/singer_1991.pdf Environmental Values] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170306210841/https://courses.washington.edu/envir100/readings/ethics/singer_1991.pdf |date=2017-03-06 }}, based on Singer, Peter "The Environmental Challenge", Ian Marsh, edit., Melbourne, Australia: Longman Cheshire, 1991, 0-582-87125-5. pp. 12</ref> Intrinsic value is always something that an [[Philosophy:Object|object]] has "in itself" or "for its own sake", and is an [[Philosophy:Intrinsic and extrinsic properties|intrinsic property]]. An object with intrinsic value may be regarded as an '''end''', or in [[Philosophy:Kantianism|Kantian terminology]], as an '''end-in-itself'''.<ref>Ivo de Gennaro, [https://books.google.com/books?id=AcAuMqmhfQkC&dq= ''Value: Sources and Readings on a Key Concept of the Globalized World''], BRILL, 2012, p. 138.</ref>

The term "intrinsic value" is used in [[Philosophy:Axiology|axiology]], a branch of [[Philosophy:Philosophy|philosophy]] that studies value (including both ethics and [[Social:Aesthetics|aesthetics]]). All major [[Philosophy:Normative ethics|normative ethical]] theories identify something as being intrinsically valuable. For instance, for a virtue ethicist, [[Philosophy:Eudaimonia|eudaimonia]] (human flourishing, sometimes translated as "happiness") has intrinsic value, whereas things that bring you happiness (such as having a family) may be merely instrumentally valuable. Similarly, consequentialists may identify pleasure, the lack of pain, and/or the fulfillment of one's preferences as having intrinsic value, making actions that produce them merely instrumentally valuable. On the other hand, proponents of [[Philosophy:Deontological ethics|deontological ethics]] argue that morally right actions (those that respect moral [[Philosophy:Duty|duty]] to others) are always intrinsically valuable, regardless of their consequences.

Other names for intrinsic value are '''terminal value''', '''essential value''', '''principle value''', or '''ultimate importance'''.<ref>See also [[Biography:Robert S. Hartman|Robert S. Hartman]]'s use of the term regarding the [[Philosophy:Science of value|science of value]].</ref>

==An 'end'==
In philosophy and ethics, an ''end'', or ''[[Philosophy:Telos|telos]]'', is the ultimate goal in a series of steps. For example, according to [[Biography:Aristotle|Aristotle]] the end of everything we do is happiness. It is contrasted to a means, which is something that helps you achieve that goal. For example, money or power may be said to be a means to the end of happiness. Nevertheless, some objects may be ends and means at the same time.

''End'' is roughly similar, and often used as a synonym, for the following concepts:
* ''Purpose'' or ''aim'': in its most general sense the anticipated result that guides [[Philosophy:Action|action]].
*''[[Philosophy:Goal|Goal]]'' or ''objective'' consists of a projected state of affairs a [[Philosophy:Person|person]] or a [[Philosophy:System|system]] plans or intends to achieve or bring about.

==Life stances and intrinsic value==
{{Further|Life stance#Values and purposes}}This table attempts to summarize the main intrinsic value of different [[Philosophy:Life stance|life stance]]s and other views, although there may be great diversity within them:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Life stance and other views !! Main intrinsic value
|-
| [[Philosophy:Moral nihilism|Moral nihilism]] || None
|-
| [[Philosophy:Humanism|Humanism]] || [[Philosophy:Eudaimonia|human flourishing]]
|-
| [[Biology:Environmentalism|Environmentalism]] || life flourishing
|-
| [[Social:Feminism|Feminism]] || [[Social:Gender equality|gender equality]]
|-
| [[Philosophy:Multiculturalism|Multiculturalism]] || flourishing of cultural values beyond one's own
|-
| [[Philosophy:Hedonism|Hedonism]] || [[Philosophy:Pleasure|pleasure]]
|-
| Eudaemonism || [[Philosophy:Eudaimonia|human flourishing]]
|-
| [[Philosophy:Utilitarianism|Utilitarianism]] || [[Utility|utility]] (classically and usually, [[Philosophy:Happiness|happiness]] or [[Philosophy:Pleasure|pleasure]] and absence of pain)
|-
| Rational deontologism || [[Philosophy:Virtue|virtue]] or duty
|-
| Rational eudaemonism, or tempered Deontologism || both virtue and happiness combined<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=CmwQAAAAIAAJ&q= ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' 6]. Universal Knowledge Foundation. 1913. p. 640.</ref>
|-
| [[Philosophy:Situational ethics|Situational ethics]] || [[Philosophy:Love|love]]
|-
| [[Religion:Christianity|Christianity]] || Imago Dei
|-
| [[Religion:Judaism|Judaism]] || [[Religion:Tikkun olam|Tikkun olam]]
|-
| [[Religion:Buddhism|Buddhism]] || [[Philosophy:Enlightenment in Buddhism|Enlightenment]] and [[Philosophy:Nirvana (Buddhism)|Nirvana]]
|}

==Quantity==
There may be zero, one, or several things in the world with intrinsic value.<ref name="meanothing">{{cite journal|last=Haught|first=James A.|title=Meaning and Nothingness: A personal journey|url=http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library&page=haught_22_1|journal=Free Inquiry|publisher=Council for Secular Humanism|volume=22|issue=1|access-date=2008-04-09|archive-date=2008-05-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080503100501/http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library&page=haught_22_1|url-status=dead}}</ref>

'''Intrinsic nihilism''', or simply '''nihilism''' (from Latin ''[[Philosophy:Nihilism|nihil]]'', 'nothing') holds that there are zero quantities with intrinsic value.

=== Intrinsic aliquidism ===
Intrinsic aliquidism, or simply '''aliquidism''' (from Latin ''aliquid'', 'something') holds that there is one or more. This may be of several quantities, ranging from one single to all possible.<ref>“Metaphysical Nihilism or Aliquidism? Against an Empty World,” presented at the [[Organization:Kentucky Philosophical Association|Kentucky Philosophical Association]], [[Organization:Transylvania University|Transylvania University]]. Lexington, KY. 28 October 2006.</ref>

*'''Intrinsic monism''' (from Greek ''monos'', 'single') holds that there is one thing with intrinsic value. This view may hold only life stances that accept this object as intrinsically valuable.
*'''Intrinsic multism''' (from Latin ''multus'', 'many') holds that there are many things with intrinsic value. In other words, this view may hold the instrinsic values of several life stances as intrinsically valuable.
*'''Intrinsic panism''' (from Greek ''pan'', 'everything') holds that everything has an intrinsic value.
Among followers of aliquidistic life stances regarding more than one thing as having intrinsic value, these may be regarded as equally intrinsically valuable or unequally so. However, in practice, they may in any case be unequally valued because of their instrumental values resulting in unequal whole values.

====Intrinsic multism====
This view may hold the intrinsic values of several life stances as intrinsically valuable. Note the difference between this and regarding several intrinsic values as more or less instrumentally valuable, since intrinsic monistic views also may hold other intrinsic values than their own chosen one as valuable, but then only to the degree other intrinsic values contribute indirectly to their own chosen intrinsic value.

The most simple form of intrinsic multism is '''intrinsic bi-ism''' (from Latin ''two''), which holds two objects as having intrinsic value, such as [[Philosophy:Happiness|happiness]] and [[Philosophy:Virtue|virtue]]. [[Philosophy:Humanism|Humanism]] is an example of a [[Philosophy:Life stance|life stance]] that accepts that several things have intrinsic value.<ref name="meanothing" />

Multism may not necessarily include the feature of intrinsic values to have a negative side—e.g., the feature of [[Philosophy:Utilitarianism|utilitarianism]] to accept both pain and pleasure as of intrinsic value, since they may be viewed as different sides of the same coin.

====Unspecified aliquidism====
{{Main|Philosophy:Ietsism}}
''Ietsism'' ([[Social:Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''ietsisme'', 'somethingism') is a term used for a range of beliefs held by people who, on the one hand, inwardly suspect—or indeed believe—that there is “more between Heaven and Earth” than we know about, but on the other hand do not accept or subscribe to the established belief system, [[Philosophy:Dogma|dogma]] or view of the nature of [[Religion:God|God]] offered by any particular religion.

In this sense, it may roughly be regarded as aliquidism, without further specification. For instance, most life stances include the acceptance of "there is something, some meaning of life, something that is an end-in-itself or something more to existence, and it is," assuming various objects or "truths," while ietsism, on the other hand, accepts "there is something," without further assumption to it.

===Total intrinsic value===
The total intrinsic value of an object is the [[Product (mathematics)|product]] of its average intrinsic value, average value intensity, and value duration. It may be either an absolute or relative value. The total intrinsic value and total instrumental value together make the total whole value of an object.

==Concrete and abstract==
The object with intrinsic value, the ''end'', may be both a concrete object or an abstract object.

===Concrete===
In the case where concrete objects are accepted as ''ends'', they may be either single [[Physics:Particular|particular]]s or generalized to all particulars of one or more [[Philosophy:Universal (metaphysics)|universal]]s. However, the majority of life stances choose all particulars of [[Philosophy:Universal (metaphysics)|universal]]s as ''end''s. For instance, [[Philosophy:Humanism|Humanism]] doesn't assume individual humans as ''ends'' but rather all humans of [[Philosophy:Human condition|humanity]].

===Continuum===
When generalizing multiple particulars of a single universal it may not be certain whether the ''end'' is actually the individual particulars or the rather abstract universal. In such cases, a life stance may rather be a continuum between having a concrete and abstract ''end''.

This may render life stances of being both intrinsic multistic and intrinsic monistic at the same time. Such a ''quantity contradiction'', however, may be of only minor practic significance, since splitting an ''end'' into many ''ends'' decreases the whole value but increases the value intensity.

== Types of intrinsic value ==

===Absolute and relative===
There may be a distinction between absolute and relative ethic value regarding intrinsic value.

'''Relative intrinsic value''' is subjective, depending on individual and cultural views and/or the individual choice of life stance. '''Absolute intrinsic value''', on the other hand, is [[Philosophy:Absolute|philosophically absolute]] and independent of individual and cultural views, as well as independent on whether it discovered or not what object has it.

There is an ongoing discussion on whether an absolute intrinsic value exists at all, for instance in [[Philosophy:Pragmatism|pragmatism]]. In pragmatism, [[Biography:John Dewey|John Dewey]]'s<ref>''Theory of Valuation'' by John Dewey</ref> empirical approach did not accept intrinsic value as an inherent or enduring property of things. He saw it as an illusory product of our continuous ethic valuing activity as purposive beings. When held across only some contexts, Dewey held that goods are only intrinsic relative to a situation. In other words, he only believed in relative intrinsic value, but not any absolute intrinsic value. He held that across all contexts, goodness is best understood as instrumental value, with no contrasting intrinsic goodness. In other words, Dewey claimed that anything can only be of intrinsic value if it is a contributory good.

===Positive and negative===
There may be both positive and negative value regarding intrinsic value, wherein something of positive intrinsic value is pursued or maximized, while something of negative intrinsic value is avoided or minimized. For instance, in [[Philosophy:Utilitarianism|utilitarianism]], [[Philosophy:Pleasure|pleasure]] has positive intrinsic value and [[Social:Suffering|suffering]] has negative intrinsic value.

== Similar concepts ==
''Intrinsic value'' is mainly used in ethics, but the concept is also used in philosophy, with terms that essentially may refer to the same concept.

*As "ultimate importance" it is what a sentient being relates to in order to constitute a [[Philosophy:Life stance|life stance]].
*It is synonymous with the [[Philosophy:Meaning of life|meaning of life]], as this may be expressed as what is meaningful or valuable<ref name="UIUC">{{cite web|last=Puolimatka|first=Tapio|author2=Airaksinen, Timo|year=2002|title=Education and the Meaning of Life|url=http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/2001/tapio%2001.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926154148/http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/2001/tapio%2001.pdf|archive-date=2007-09-26|access-date=2007-07-26|work=Philosophy of Education|publisher=University of Helsinki}}</ref> in life. However, ''meaning of life'' is more vague, with other uses as well.
*''[[Philosophy:Summum bonum|Summum bonum]]'' is basically its equivalent in [[Philosophy:Medieval philosophy|medieval philosophy]].
*The relative intrinsic value is roughly synonymous with the ethic ideal.
*Inherent value may be regarded as a first grade instrumental value when personal experience is the intrinsic value.

== See also ==
* [[Philosophy:Animal ethics|Animal ethics]]
* Autotelic
* Extrinsic value (ethics)
* Ophelimity
* Value system
* [[Philosophy:Value theory|Value theory]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{cite SEP |url-id=value-intrinsic-extrinsic |title=Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Value |last=Zimmerman |first=Michael J.}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040119161017/http://www.scholars.nus.edu.sg/behaviour/ushb01/CCHBLecture09.html Discussion of different types of values]<!-- Broken 2012-02-23 -->

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[[Category:Concepts in ethics]]
[[Category:Value (ethics)]]

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