View source for History:Qizilbash

{{Short description|Shia group}}

'''Qizilbash''' or '''Kizilbash''' ({{lang-az|Qızılbaş}}; {{lang-ota|قزيل باش}}; {{lang-fa|قزلباش|Qezelbāš}}; {{lang-tr|Kızılbaş|lit=red head}} {{IPA-tr|kɯzɯɫbaʃ}}) were a diverse array of mainly Turkoman<ref name=":1">{{cite book |last1=Babayan |first1=Kathryn |title=The Waning of the Qizilbash: The Spiritual and the Temporal in Seventeenth Century Iran |date=1993 |publisher=Princeton University |pages=1–6, 41-47}} "The '''Qizilbash''', composed mainly of '''Turkman tribesmen''', were the military force introduced by the conquering Safavis to the Iranian domains in the sixteenth century."</ref> [[Religion:Shia Islam|Shia]] militant groups that flourished in [[Place:Azerbaijan (Iran)|Azerbaijan]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cornell|first1=Vincent J.|title=Voices of Islam (Praeger perspectives)|date=2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0275987329|page=225 vol.1|oclc=230345942}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Parker|first1=Charles H.|title=Global Interactions in the Early Modern Age, 1400–1800|date=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1139491419|page=53|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SKgs8-pj4_YC}}</ref> [[Earth:Anatolia|Anatolia]], the [[Earth:Armenian highlands|Armenian highlands]], the [[Earth:Caucasus|Caucasus]], and [[Place:Kurdistan|Kurdistan]] from the late 15th century onwards, and contributed to the foundation of the Safavid dynasty in [[History:History of Iran#Safavid Empire (1501–1736)|early modern Iran]].<ref name="S-G">Roger M. Savory: "''Kizil-Bash''{{-"}}. In ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', Vol. 5, pp. 243–245.</ref><ref>Savory, EI2, Vol. 5, p. 243: "Kizilbāsh (T. "Red-head"). [...] In general, it is used loosely to denote a wide variety of extremist Shi'i sects [see Ghulāt], which flourished in [V:243b] Anatolia and Kurdistān from the late 7th/13th century onwards, including such groups as the Alevis (see A. S. Tritton, ''Islam: belief and practices'', London 1951, 83)."</ref> 

==Etymology==
[[File:Qezelbash.JPG|thumb|179px|Mannequin of a Safavid Qizilbash soldier, exhibited in the Sa'dabad Complex, Iran]]
The word Qizilbash derives from Turkish ''Kızılbaş'', meaning "red head". The expression is derived from their distinctive twelve-[[Gore (segment)|gored]] crimson headwear (''tāj'' or ''tark'' in [[Social:Persian language|Persian]]; sometimes specifically titled "Haydar's Crown" {{lang|fa|{{nq|تاج حیدر}}}}  / ''Tāj-e Ḥaydar''),<ref group=Note>''Tāj'', meaning ''crown'' in Persian, is also a term for hats used to delineate one's affiliation to a particular [[Religion:Sufism|Sufi]] order.</ref> indicating their adherence to the Twelve Imams and to Shaykh Haydar, the spiritual leader (''[[Religion:Sheikh|sheikh]]'') of the Safavid order in accordance with the [[Religion:Imamate in Twelver doctrine|Imamate in Twelver doctrine]].<ref name="Momen">Moojan Momen, "An Introduction to Shi'i Islam", Yale Univ. Press, 1985, ''{{ISBN|0-300-03499-7}}'', pp. 101–107.</ref> The name was originally a pejorative label given to them by their Sunni Ottoman foes, but soon it was adopted as a mark of pride.{{sfn|Savory|Karamustafa|1998|pp=628–636}}{{sfn|Amanat|2017|p=43}}

==Origins==
The origin of the Qizilbash can be dated from the 15th century onward, when the [[Religion:Sheikh#Sufi term|spiritual grandmaster]] of the movement, Shaykh Haydar (the head of the Safaviyya Sufi order), organized his followers into militant troops. The Qizilbash were originally composed of seven Turkic, all [[Social:Ajem-Turkic|Azerbaijani]]-speaking tribes: Rumlu, Shamlu, Ustajlu, Afshar, Qajar, Tekelu, and Zulkadar.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grigoriev |first1=Sergei |title=Об этнической принадлежности шиитов Афганистана |journal=Восток: история и культура |date=2000 |pages=32–46 |trans-title=On the ethnicity of the Shiites of Afghanistan |location=Saint Petersburg |language=ru |quote=Кызылбаши, первоначально состоявшие из представителей семи малоазиатских тюркоязычных племен румлу, шамлу, устаджлу, афшар, каджар, текелю и зулкадар, говоривших на азербайджанском языке, были с XV в. одной из главных военно-политических опор Сефевидского государства.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Floor |first1=Willem |last2=Javadi |first2=Hasan |title=The Role of Azerbaijani Turkish in Safavid Iran |journal=Iranian Studies |date=2013 |volume=46 |issue=4 |page=569 |doi=10.1080/00210862.2013.784516 |jstor=24482868 |s2cid=161700244 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24482868 |issn=0021-0862}}</ref> 

Connections between the Qizilbash and other religious groups and secret societies, such as the Iranian Zoroastrian [[Biography:Mazdak|Mazdak]]i movement in the Sasanian Empire, or its more radical offspring, the Persian Khurramites, and [[Religion:Shamanism in Siberia|Turkic shamanism]], have been suggested.<ref>Martin van Bruinessen, ‘''Between Dersim and Dâlahû: Reflections on Kurdish Alevism and the Ahl-i Haqq religion''’ Published in: Shahrokh Raei (ed.), Islamic Alternatives: Non-Mainstream Religion in Persianate Societies [Göttinger Orientforschungen, III. Reihe: Iranica, N.F. 16]. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2017, pp. 65-93. ([https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/370756/Bruinessen_Dersim_and_Dalahu_2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y PDF])</ref><ref> Martin van Bruinessen, ‘''Dersim and Dalahu: Some Reflections on Kurdish Alevism and the Ahl-i Haqq religion''’, Published in: Mehmet Öz & Fatih Yeşil (eds), Ötekilerin peşinde. Ahmet Yaşar Ocak'a armağan / In pursuit of the Others: Festschrift in honor of Ahmet Yaşar Ocak, Istanbul: Timaş, 2015, pp. 613-30. ([https://www.academia.edu/13125948/Dersim_and_Dalahu_Some_Reflections_on_Kurdish_Alevism_and_the_Ahl_i_Haqq_religion PDF])</ref><ref>''Harvard Religion and Public Life'' - [https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/alevism "Alevism"]</ref> Of these, the Khurramites were, like the Qizilbash, an early Shi'i ''ghulat'' group<ref name="S-G" /> and dressed in red, for which they were termed "the red ones" ({{lang-fa|سرخ‌جامگان}}, {{lang-ar|محمرة}} ''muḥammirah'') by medieval sources.<ref>H. Anetshofer/H.T. Karateke, ''Traktat über die Derwischmützen (ri̇sāle-i̇ Tāciyye) des Müstaqīm-zāde Süleymān Sāʻdeddīn''; Brill, 2001; {{ISBN|90-04-12048-3}} (German original)</ref> In this context, Turkish scholar Abdülbaki Gölpinarlı sees the Qizilbash as "spiritual descendants of the Khurramites".<ref name="S-G" />

==Organization==
The Qizilbash were a coalition of many different tribes of predominantly (but not exclusively) [[Social:Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking background united in their adherence to Safavi Shia [[Religion:Islam|Islam]]. Apart from Turkomans, Qizilbash also included Kurds, Lurs, Persians, and Talysh.

As ''[[Religion:Murid|murid]]s'' (sworn students) of the Safavi ''[[Religion:Sheikh|sheikh]]''s ([[Religion:Pir (Sufism)|pir]]s), the Qizilbash owed implicit obedience to their leader in his capacity as their ''[[Biography:Murshid|murshid-e kāmil]]'' "supreme spiritual director" and, after the establishment of the kingdom, as their padishah (great king). The establishment of the kingdom thus changed the purely religious ''pir – murid'' relationship into a political one. As a consequence, any act of disobedience of the Qizilbash Sufis against the order of the spiritual grandmaster (Persian: ''nāsufigari'' "conduct unbecoming of a Sufi") became "an act of treason against the king and a crime against the state", as was the case in 1614 when Padishah Abbas the Great put some followers to death.<ref>Roger M. Savory, "The office of ''khalifat al-khulafa'' under the Safawids", in JOAS, lxxxv, 1965, p. 501</ref>

==Beliefs==
The Qizilbash adhered to [[Religion:Heterodoxy|heterodox]] Shi’i doctrines encouraged by the early Safavi sheikhs Haydar and his son Ismail I. They regarded their rulers as divine figures, and so were classified as ''ghulat'' "extremists" by orthodox [[Religion:Twelver|Twelver]]s.<ref>Momen, 1985</ref>

When [[Place:Tabriz|Tabriz]] was taken, there was not a single book on Twelverism among the Qizilbash leaders. The book of the well known Iraqi scholar al-Hilli (1250–1325) was procured in the town library to provide religious guidance to the state.<ref>Moojan Momen, "An Introduction to Shi'i Islam", Yale Univ. Press, 1985, ''{{ISBN|0-300-03499-7}}'', p. 397</ref> The imported Shi'i ''[[Religion:Ulama|ulama]]'' did not participate in the formation of Safavid religious policies during the early formation of the state. However, ''ghulat'' doctrines were later forsaken and Arab Twelver ''ulama'' from [[Place:Lebanon|Lebanon]], Iraq, and Bahrain were imported in increasing numbers to bolster orthodox Twelver practice and belief.

===Qizilbash aqidah in Anatolia===

In Turkey, orthoprax Twelvers following Ja'fari jurisprudence are called Ja'faris. Although the Qizilbash are also Twelvers, their practices do not adhere to Ja'fari jurisprudence.
* The Qizilbash have a unique and complex conviction tracing back to the Kaysanites and Khurramites, who are considered ghulat (extremist) Shia. According to Turkish scholar {{lang|tr|Abdülbaki Gölpinarli}}, the Qizilbash of the 16th century – a religious and political movement in Iranian Azerbaijan that helped to establish the Safavid dynasty – were "spiritual descendants of the Khurramites".<ref>Roger M. Savory (ref. Abdülbaki Gölpınarlı), Encyclopaedia of Islam, "Kizil-Bash", Online Edition 2005</ref>
* Among the individual revered by Alevis, two figures, firstly Abu Muslim who assisted the [[Place:Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid Caliphate]] to beat [[Place:Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad Caliphate]], but who was later eliminated and murdered by Caliph al-Mansur, and secondly Babak Khorramdin, who incited a rebellion against the [[Place:Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid Caliphate]] and consequently was killed by Caliph al-Mu'tasim, are highly respected. In addition, the Safavid leader Ismail I is highly regarded.
* The Qizilbash ''[[Religion:Aqidah|aqidah]]'', or creed,  is based upon a syncretic [[Religion:Fiqh|fiqh]] (jurisprudence tradition) called [[Religion:Batiniyya|batiniyya]],<ref name="BĀṬENĪYA">{{cite web|last=Halm|first=H|title=Bāṭenīya|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bateniya|publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica|access-date=4 August 2014}}</ref> referring to an inner or hidden meaning in holy texts. It incorporates some Qarmatian thoughts, originally introduced by Abu’l-Khāttāb Muhammad ibn Abu Zaynab al-Asadī,<ref name="ABU’L-ḴAṬṬĀB ASADĪ">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abul-kattab-mohammad-b|title=Abu'l-Ḵaṭṭāb Asadī|access-date=15 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="ḴAṬṬĀBIYA">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kattabiya|title=Ḵaṭṭābiya|access-date=15 February 2015}}</ref> and later developed by Maymun al-Qāddāh and his son ʿAbd Allāh ibn Maymun,<ref name="MAYMŪN AL-QADDĀḤ">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abdallah-b-maymun-al-qaddah-legendary-founder-of-the-qarmatian-ismaili-doctrine|title=ʿAbdallāh B. Maymūn Al-Qaddāḥ|access-date=15 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516235417/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abdallah-b-maymun-al-qaddah-legendary-founder-of-the-qarmatian-ismaili-doctrine|archive-date=16 May 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Religion:Muʿtazila|Muʿtazila]] with a strong belief in The Twelve Imams.
* Not all of the members believe that the fasting in [[Religion:Ramadan|Ramadan]] is obligatory although some Alevi Turks perform their fasting duties partially in Ramadan.
* Some beliefs of [[Unsolved:Shamanism|shamanism]] still are common among the Qizilbash in villages.
* The Qizilbash are not a part of Ja'fari jurisprudence, even though they can be considered as members of different tariqa of Shia Islam all looks like sub-classes of [[Religion:Twelver|Twelver]]. Their conviction includes [[Religion:Batiniyya|Batiniyya]]-[[Religion:Hurufism|Hurufism]] and "[[Sevener]]-Qarmatians-[[Religion:Isma'ilism|Isma'ilism]]" sentiments.<ref name="BĀṬENĪYA"/><ref>[[Biography:Yaşar Nuri Öztürk|Öztürk, Yaşar Nuri]], ''En-el Hak [[Social:Rebellion|İsyan]]ı (The Anal Haq [[Social:Rebellion|Rebellion]]) – Hallâc-ı Mansûr (Darağacında Miraç – Miraç on Gallows),'' Vol 1 and 2, Yeni Boyut, 2011.</ref>
* They all may be considered as special groups not following the Ja'fari jurisprudence, like Alawites who are in the class of ghulat Twelver Shia Islam, but a special [[Religion:Batiniyya|Batiniyya]] belief somewhat similar to [[Religion:Isma'ilism|Isma'ilism]] in their conviction.

==Composition==
[[File:Сефи 1-й 1629-42.jpg|thumb|220px|Shah Ismail I, the Sheikh of the Safavi ''tariqa'', founder of the Safavid dynasty of Iran, and the Commander-in-chief of the Qizilbash armies.]]

Among the Qizilbash, Turcoman tribes from Eastern Anatolia and [[Place:Azerbaijan (Iran)|Iranian Azerbaijan]] who had helped Ismail I defeat the Aq Qoyunlu tribe were by far the most important in both number and influence and the name ''Qizilbash'' is usually applied exclusively to them.<ref name="Minorsky">Minorsky, Vladimir (1943) "Tadhkirat al-muluk", London, pp. 16–18, 188</ref> Some of these greater Turcoman tribes were subdivided into as many as eight or nine clans, including:
* Ustādjlu (Their origins reach back to the Begdili)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bigdeli-or-begdeli-also-bagdilu-a-former-turkish-tribe|title=BĪGDELĪ – Encyclopaedia Iranica|website=www.iranicaonline.org|access-date=25 May 2020}}</ref>
* Rūmlu
* Shāmlu (the most powerful clan during the reign of Shah Ismail I.)
* [[Place:Beylik of Dulkadir|Dulkadir]] (Arabic: Dhu 'l-Kadar)
* Afshār
* Qājār
* Takkalu

Other tribes – such as the Turkman, Bahārlu, Qaramānlu, Warsāk, and Bayāt – were occasionally listed among these "seven great uymaqs". Today, the remnants of the Qizilbash confederacy are found among the Afshar, the Qashqai, Turkmen, Shahsevan, and others.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tapper |first=Richard |year=2011 |chapter=Introduction |title=Tribe and State in Iran and Afghanistan |location=London |publisher=Routledge |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LCj8dzn0KIMC&pg=PA11 11] |isbn=978-0-415-61056-8}}</ref>

Some of these names consist of a place-name with the addition of the Turkish suffix ''-lu'', such as Shāmlu or Bahārlu. Other names are those of old Oghuz tribes such as the Afshār, Dulghadir, or Bayāt, as mentioned by the medieval Karakhanid historian Mahmud al-Kashgari.

The non-Turkic Iranian tribes among the Qizilbash were called Tājīks by the Turcomans and included:<ref name="Minorsky" /><ref>{{Cite journal|first=Roger M. |last=Savory |year=1965 |title=The consolidation of Safawid power in Persia |journal=Der Islam |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=71–94 |doi=10.1515/islm.1965.41.1.71|s2cid=161679360 }}</ref>
* Tālish
* The Lurs
* Siāh-Kuh (Karādja-Dagh)
* certain Kurdish tribes
* certain Persian families and clans

The rivalry between the Turkic clans and the Persian nobles was a major problem in the Safavid kingdom. As V. Minorsky put it, friction between these two groups was inevitable, because the Turcomans ''"were no party to the national Persian tradition"''. Shah Ismail tried to solve the problem by appointing Persian ''wakil''s as commanders of Qizilbash tribes. The Turcomans considered this an insult and brought about the death of 3 of the 5 Persians appointed to this office – an act that later inspired the deprivation of the Turcomans by Shah Abbas I.<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Roger M. |last=Savory |year=1964 |title=The significance of the political murder of Mirza Salman |journal=Islamic Studies |volume=3 |pages=181–191 |location=Karachi }}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Chardin Ghezelbash.jpg|thumb|180px|In Jean Chardin's book.]]

===Beginnings===
[[File:"Shah Ismail holds an audience", from Bijan’s Tarikh-i Jahangusha-yi Khaqan Sahibqiran, Iran, Isfahan; end of the 1680s.jpg|thumb|Persian miniature created by Mo'en Mosavver, depicting Shah Ismail I at an audience receiving the Qizilbash after they defeated the Shirvanshah Farrukh Yasar. Album leaf from a copy of Bijan’s ''Tarikh-i Jahangusha-yi Khaqan Sahibqiran'' (A History of Shah Ismail I), produced in Isfahan, end of the 1680s]]
The rise of the Ottomans put a great strain on the Turkmen tribes living in the area, which eventually led them to join the Safavids, who transformed them into a militant organisation, called the Qizilbash (meaning "red heads" in [[Social:Turkish language|Turkish]]), initially a pejorative label given to them by the Ottomans, but later adopted as a mark of pride.{{sfn|Savory|Karamustafa|1998|pp=628–636}}{{sfn|Amanat|2017|p=43}} The religion of the Qizilbash resembled much more the heterodox beliefs of northwestern Iran and eastern Anatolia, rather than the traditional Twelver Shia Islam. The beliefs of the Qizilbash consisted of non-Islamic aspects, varying from crypto-Zoroastrian beliefs to [[Unsolved:Shamanism|shamanistic]] practises, the latter which had been practised by their [[Place:Central Asia|Central Asia]]n ancestors.{{sfn|Amanat|2017|p=43}}

However, a common aspect that all these heterodox beliefs shared was a form of [[Religion:Messianism|messianism]], devoid of the restrictions of the Islam practiced in [[Engineering:Urban area|urban area]]s. Concepts of [[Religion:Divine inspiration|divine inspiration]] and [[Philosophy:Reincarnation|reincarnation]] were common, with the Qizilbash viewing their Safavid leader (whom they called ''morshed-e kamel'', "the Perfect Guide") as the reincarnation of [[Biography:Ali|Ali]] and a  manifestation of the divine in human form.{{sfn|Amanat|2017|pp=43–44}} The were a total of seven major Qizilbash "tribes", each named after an area they identified themselves with; the Rumlu presumably came from [[Religion:Rûm|Rum]] (Anatolia); the Shamlu from Sham ([[Place:Syria (region)|Syria]]); the Takkalu from the Takkeh in southeastern Anatolia; the Ostajlu from Ostaj in the southern [[Earth:Caucasus|Caucasus]]. It is uncertain if the Afshar and Qajar were named after an area in Azerbaijan, or after their ancestors. All these tribes shared a common lifestyle, language, faith, and animosity towards the Ottomans.{{sfn|Amanat|2017|pp=44–45}}

In the 15th century, [[Place:Ardabil|Ardabil]] was the center of an organization designed to keep the Safavi leadership in close touch with its murids in Azerbaijan, Iraq, Eastern Anatolia, and elsewhere. The organization was controlled through the office of ''khalīfāt al-khulafā'ī'' who appointed representatives (''khalīfa'') in regions where Safavi propaganda was active. The ''khalīfa'', in turn, had subordinates termed ''pira''. The Safavi presence in eastern Anatolia posed a serious threat to the [[Place:Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] because they encouraged the Shi'i population of Asia Minor to revolt against the sultan.

In 1499, Ismail, the young leader of the Safavi order, left Lahijan for Ardabil to make a bid for power. By the summer of 1500, about 7,000 supporters from the local Turcoman tribes of [[Earth:Asia Minor|Asia Minor]] (Anatolia), [[Place:Syria|Syria]], and the [[Earth:Caucasus|Caucasus]] – collectively called "Qizilbash" by their enemies – rallied to his support in Erzincan.<ref>Faruk Sümer, ''Safevi Devletinin Kuruluşu ve Gelişmesinde Anadolu Türklerinin Rolü'', Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara, 1992, p. 15. {{in lang|tr}}</ref> Leading his troops on a punitive campaign against the Shīrvanshāh (ruler of [[Place:Shirvan|Shirvan]]), he sought revenge for the death of his father and his grandfather in Shīrvan. After defeating the Shīrvanshāh Farrukh Yassar and incorporating his kingdom, he moved south into Azarbaijan, where his 7,000 Qizilbash warriors defeated a force of 30,000 Aq Qoyunlu under Alwand Mirzā<ref name="EoI">Roger M. Savory, Encyclopaedia of Islam, "Safawids", Online Edition, 2005</ref> and conquered [[Place:Tabriz|Tabriz]]. This was the beginning of the Safavid state.

By 1510, Ismail and his Qizilbash had conquered the whole of Iran and the Republic of Azerbaijan,<ref>BBC, ([http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/safavidempire_1.shtml Link])</ref> southern Dagestan (with its important city of Derbent), [[Place:Mesopotamia|Mesopotamia]], [[Place:Armenia|Armenia]], [[Place:Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], Eastern Anatolia, and had made the [[Place:Georgia (country)|Georgian]] kingdoms of Kartli and [[Place:Kingdom of Kakheti|Kakheti]] his vassals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranchamber.com/history/safavids/safavids.php|title=History of Iran: Safavid Empire 1502–1736|access-date=16 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Rayfield|first=Donald|title=Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PxQpmg_JIpwC&pg=PA165|year=2013|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-78023-070-2|page=165}}</ref> Many of these areas were priorly under the control of the Ak Koyunlu.

In 1510 Shah Ismail sent a large force of the Qizilbash to Transoxiania to fight the Uzbeks. The Qizilbash defeated the Uzbeks and secured [[Place:Samarkand|Samarkand]] at the Battle of Marv. However, in 1512, an entire Qizilbash army was annihilated by the Uzbeks after Turcoman Qizilbash had mutinied against their Persian ''wakil'' and commander Najm-e Thani at the Battle of Ghazdewan.<ref>Roger M. Savory, "The significance of the political murder of Mirza Salman", in ''"Studies on the history of Safawid Iran"'', xv, pp. 186–187</ref> This defeat put an end to Safavid expansion and influence in Transoxania and left the northeastern frontiers of the kingdom vulnerable to nomad invasions, until some decades later.

===Battle of Chaldiran===
Meanwhile, the Safavid ''[[Religion:Dawah|dawah]]'' continued in Ottoman areas – with great success. Even more alarming for the Ottomans was the successful conversion of Turcoman tribes in Eastern Anatolia, and the recruitment of these well experienced and feared fighters into the growing Safavid army. In order to stop the Safavid propaganda, Sultan Bayezid II deported large numbers of the Shi'i population of [[Earth:Asia Minor|Asia Minor]] to Morea. However, in 1507, Shah Ismail and the Qizilbash overran large areas of Kurdistan, defeating regional Ottoman forces. Only two years later in Central Asia, the Qizilbash defeated the Uzbeks at [[Place:Merv|Merv]], killing their leader Muhammad Shaybani and destroying his dynasty. His head was sent to the Ottoman sultan as a warning.

[[File:QIZILBASH.jpg|thumb|220px|A Safavid Qizilbash cavalryman.]]

In 1511, a pro-Safavid revolt known as the Shahkulu Uprising broke out in Teke. An imperial army that was sent to suppress it, was defeated. Shah Ismail sought to turn the chaos within the [[Place:Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] to his advantage and moved up his borders even more westwards in Asia Minor. The Qizilbash defeated a large Ottoman army under Sinan Pasha. Shocked by this heavy defeat, Sultan Selim I (the new ruler of the Empire) decided to invade Persia with a force of 200,000 Ottomans and face the Qizilbash on their own soil. In addition, he ordered the persecution of Alevis<ref name="bloomberg">{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-05-30/turkey-s-alevis-outraged-by-executioner-name-for-bridge.html |title=Turkey's Alevis Outraged by 'Executioner' Name for Bridge|newspaper=bloomberg.com|date=31 May 2013|access-date=10 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="todayszaman">{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/national_alevis-protest-plans-to-name-third-bridge-after-ottoman-sultan_317231.html|title=Alevis protest plans to name third bridge after Ottoman Sultan|publisher=todayszaman.com|access-date=10 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214192729/http://www.todayszaman.com/national_alevis-protest-plans-to-name-third-bridge-after-ottoman-sultan_317231.html|archive-date=14 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> and massacred its adherents in the Ottoman Empire.<ref>H.A.R. Gibb & H. Bowen, "Islamic society and the West", i/2, Oxford, 1957, p. 189</ref>

On 20 August 1514 (1st [[Religion:Rajab|Rajab]] 920 A.H.), the two armies met at Chaldiran in northwestern Iran. The Ottomans -equipped with both firearms and cannon- were reported to outnumber the Qizilbash as much as three to one. The Qizilbash were badly defeated;<ref>M.J. McCaffrey, Encyclopaedia Iranica, "Čālderān", v, pp. 656–8, ([http://www.iranica.com/newsite/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=/home/iranica/public_html/newsite/pdfarticles/v4_articles/calderan&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/newsite/logs/pdfdownload.html Link]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929004601/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=%2Fhome%2Firanica%2Fpublic_html%2Fnewsite%2Fpdfarticles%2Fv4_articles%2Fcalderan&OptStrLogFile=%2Fhome%2Firanica%2Fpublic_html%2Fnewsite%2Flogs%2Fpdfdownload.html |date=29 September 2008 }})</ref> casualties included many high-ranking Qizilbash ''amirs'' as well as three influential ''ulamā''.

The defeat destroyed Shah Ismail's belief in his own invincibility and divine status. It also fundamentally altered the relationship between the ''murshid-e kāmil'' and his ''[[Religion:Murid|murid]]s'' (followers).

===The deprivation of the Turcomans===
Ismail I tried to reduce the power of the Turcomans by appointing Iranians to the vakil office. However, the Turcomans did not like having an Iranian to the most powerful office of the Safavid Empire and kept murdering many Iranians who were appointed to that office.<ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Iran Under the Safavids|author=Savory, R.|date=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521042512|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v4Yr4foWFFgC|page=43|access-date=10 December 2014}}</ref> After the death of Ismail, the Turkomans managed to seize power from the Iranians, they were however, defeated by Tahmasp I, the son of Ismail.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

For almost ten years after the Battle of Chaldiran, rival Qizilbash factions fought for control of the kingdom. In 1524, 10-year-old Shah Tahmasp I, the governor of [[Place:Herat|Herat]], succeeded his father Ismail. He was the [[Social:Ward (law)|ward]] of the powerful Qizilbash ''amir'' Ali Beg Rūmlū (titled "''Div Soltān''{{-"}}) who was the ''de facto'' ruler of the Safavid kingdom.<ref>Roger M. Savory in ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'', "Dīv Soltān", Online Edition, 2005, ([http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v7f4/v7f474.html Link])</ref> However, Tahmasp managed to reassert his authority over the state and over the Qizilbash.

During the reign of Shah Tahmasp, the Qizilbash fought a series of wars on two fronts and – with the poor resources available to them – successfully defended their kingdom against the Uzbeks in the east, and against the arch-rivals of the Safavids – the Ottomans – in the west.{{sfn|Rothman|2015|page=236}} With the Peace of Amasya (1555), peace between Safavids and Ottomans remained for the rest of Tahmasp's reign.<ref>M. Köhbach in ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'', "Peace of Amasya", v, p. 928, Online Edition, ([http://www.iranica.com/newsite/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=/home1/iranica/articles/v1_articles/amasya_peace_of&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/logs/pdfdownload.html Link])</ref>
During Tahmasp' reign, he carried out multiple invasions in the [[Earth:Caucasus|Caucasus]] which had been incorporated in the Safavid empire since Shah Ismail I and for many centuries afterward, and started with the trend of deporting and moving hundreds of thousands of Circassians, Georgians, and Armenians to Iran's heartlands. Initially only solely put in the royal harems, royal guards, and several other specific posts of the Empire, Tahmasp believed he could eventually reduce the power of the Qizilbash, by creating and fully integrating a new layer in Iranian society with these Caucasian elements and who would question the power and hegemony of the tribal Qizilbash. This included the formation of a military slave system,<ref name="Streusand, p. 148">Streusand, p. 148.</ref> similar to that of the neighboring [[Place:Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] – the janissaries.<ref name="iranicaonline.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/barda-v|title=Barda and Barda-Dāri v. Military slavery in Islamic Iran|access-date=15 April 2014}}</ref> Tahmasp's successors, and most importantly Shah Abbas I (r. 1588–1629), would significantly expand this policy when during the reign of Abbas I alone some 200,000 Georgians, 300,000 Armenians and many tens of thousands of Circassians were relocated to Iran's heartlands.{{sfn|Blow|2009|page=66}}{{sfn|Aslanian|2011|page=1}}{{sfn|Bournoutian|2002|page=208}}{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2015|pages=291, 536}}{{sfn|Floor|Herzig|2012|page=479}} By this creation of a so-called "third layer" or "third force" in Iranian society composed of ethnic Caucasians, and the complete systematic disorganisation of the Qizilbash by his personal orders, Abbas I eventually fully succeeded in replacing the power of the Qizilbash, with that of the Caucasian ghulams. These new Caucasian elements (the so-called ''ghilman'' / غِلْمَان / ''"servants"''), almost always after conversion to Shi'ism depending on given function would be, unlike the Qizilbash, fully loyal only to the Shah. This system of mass usage of Caucasian subjects continued to exist until the fall of the Qajar dynasty.

The inter-tribal rivalry of the Turcomans, the attempt of Persian nobles to end the Turcoman dominance, and constant succession conflicts went on for another 10 years after Tahmasp's death. This heavily weakened the Safavid state and made the kingdom vulnerable to external enemies: the Ottomans attacked in the west, whereas the Uzbeks attacked the east.

[[Image:Daud Khan Undiladze.jpg|thumb|right|Daud Khan Undiladze, Safavid ''ghulam'', military commander, and the governor of Karabakh and Ganja between 1627 and 1633.]]

In 1588, Shah Abbas I came to power. He appointed the Governor of [[Place:Herat|Herat]] and his former guardian and tutor, Alī Quli Khān Shāmlū (also known as ''Hājī Alī Qizilbāsh Mazandarānī'') the chief of all the armed forces. Later on, events of the past, including the role of the Turcomans in the succession struggles after the death of his father, and the counterbalancing influence of traditional Ithnāʻashari Shia Sayeds, made him determined to end the dominance of the untrustworthy Turcoman chiefs in Persia which Tahmasp had already started decades before him. In order to weaken the Turcomans – the important militant elite of the Safavid kingdom – Shah Abbas further raised a standing army, personal guard, Queen-Mothers, [[Religion:Harem|Harem]]s and full civil administration from the ranks of these ''ghilman'' who were usually ethnic Circassians, Georgians, and Armenians, both men and women, whom he and his predecessors had taken captive en masse during their wars in the Caucasus, and would systematically replace the Qizilbash from their functions with converted Circassians and Georgians. The new army and civil administration would be fully loyal to the king personally and not to the clan-chiefs anymore.<ref name="EoI" />

The reorganisation of the army also ended the independent rule of Turcoman chiefs in the Safavid provinces, and instead centralized the administration of those provinces.

''Ghulams'' were appointed to high positions within the royal household, and by the end of Shah Abbas' reign, one-fifth of the high-ranking amirs were ghulams.<ref name="Minorsky" /> By 1598 already an ethnic Georgian from Safavid-ruled Georgia, well known by his adopted Muslim name after conversion, Allahverdi Khan, had risen to the position of commander-in-chief of all Safavid armed forces.<ref>C. Fleischer, ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'', "Allāhverdi Khān", v, pp. 891–892, Online Edition, 2005, ([http://www.iranica.com/newsite/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=/home1/iranica/articles/v1_articles/allahverdi_khan&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/logs/pdfdownload.html Link])</ref> and by that became one of the most powerful men in the empire. The offices of ''wakil'' and ''amir al-umarā'' fell in disuse and were replaced by the office of a ''Sipahsālār'' ({{lang-fa|سپهسالار}}, ''master of the army''), commander-in-chief of all armed forces – Turcoman and Non-Turcoman – and usually held by a Persian (''Tādjik'') noble.

The Turcoman Qizilbash nevertheless remained an important part of the Safavid executive apparatus, even though ethnic Caucasians came to largely replace them. For example, even in the 1690s, when ethnic Georgians formed the mainstay of the Safavid military, the Qizilbash still played a significant role in the army.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Matthee|first1=Rudi|title=Persia in Crisis: Safavid Decline and the Fall of Isfahan|date=2012|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1845117450|page=114}}</ref> The [[Place:Afsharid dynasty|Afshār]] and Qājār rulers of Persia who succeeded the Safavids, stemmed from a Qizilbash background. Many other Qizilbash – Turcoman and Non-Turcoman – were settled in far eastern cities such as [[Place:Kabul|Kabul]] and [[Place:Kandahar|Kandahar]] during the conquests of Nader Shah, and remained there as consultants to the new [[Place:Durrani Empire|Afghan crown]] after the Shah's death. Others joined the Mughal emperors of India and became one of the most influential groups of the Mughal court until the [[History:British Raj|British conquest of India]].{{citation needed|date=October 2016}}

==Legacy==
===Afghanistan===
[[File:Mohammad Naib Sharif in Kabul.jpg|thumb|225px|Mohammad Naib Sharif, leader of the Qizilbash group in Afghanistan during the First Anglo-Afghan War of 1839–42]]
[[File:Afghan_lady_in_Kabul.jpg|thumb|Afghan Qizilbash lady in Kabul]]
Qizilbash in Afghanistan primarily live in urban areas, such as [[Place:Kabul|Kabul]], [[Place:Kandahar|Kandahar]] or [[Place:Herat|Herat]]. Some of them are descendants of the troops left behind by Nadir Shah.<ref name="af-mil-his-ale-124">5. The Rise of Afghanistan, page 124 // [https://books.google.com/books?id=8BVIKsDbdKYC&q=qizilbash+afghanistan Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the War Against the Taliban]. Author: Stephen Tanner. First published in 2002 by Da Capo Press; (revised edition) reprinted in 2009. Philadelphia: Da Capo Press, 2009, 375 pages. {{ISBN|9780306818264}} {{pull quote|The Qizilbash, or "Red Heads," were Turkic warriors-turned-Persian who had arrived in Afghanistan in numbers after Nadir Shah's and other Persian debacles.}}</ref><ref>The Dictionary. — N. — Nadir Shah Afshar, page 305 – 306. // [https://books.google.com/books?id=AAHna6aqtX4C&q=qizilbash+afghanistan Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan]. Fourth edition. Author: Ludwig W. Adamec. Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2012, XCV+569 pages. {{ISBN|9780810878150}} {{pull quote|Some of Nadir's Qizilbash soldiers settled in Afghanistan where their descendants had successful careers in the army (until the end of Dost Muhammad's rule), government, the trades, and crafts.}}</ref> Others however were brought to the country during the [[Place:Durrani Empire|Durrani rule]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Noelle-Karimi|first=Christine|url=|title=The Interaction Between State and Tribe in Nineteenth-century Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan (1826-1863)|date=1995|publisher=University of California, Berkeley|language=en}}</ref> Zaman Shah Durrani had a cavalry of over 100.000 men, consisting mostly of Qizilbash<ref>{{Cite book|last=Noelle|first=Christine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ylTi-e2C_0IC&q=Zaman+Shah+cavalry+Qizilbash&pg=PA26|title=State and Tribe in Nineteenth-Century Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan (1826-1863)|date=2012-06-25|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-60317-4|language=en|quote=According to Husaini, the "gholam Khana" furnished 15,000 out of Shah Zaman's total cavalry of 100,000 and consisted mostly of Qizilbash. Burnes reports that the Qizilbash retained a great degree of their autonomous organization and only pledged direct allegiance to their individual khans, who were in turn answerable to the king. This statement is borne out by the fact that the command of the entire bodyguard rested with the Qizilbash leader Mahmud Khan Bayat during 'Timur Shah's time. Up to Shah Zaman's reign the Khorasani contingents were listed according to tribal allegiance.}}</ref> Afghanistan's Qizilbash held important posts in government offices in the past, and today engage in trade or are craftsmen. Since the creation of Afghanistan, they constitute an important and politically influential element of society. Estimates of their population vary from 30,000 to 200,000.<ref name="Countries and Their Cultures : Qizilbash">[http://www.everyculture.com/Africa-Middle-East/Qizilbash.html Countries and Their Cultures: Qizilbash]:..Obtaining accurate population figures for the Qizilbash in Afghanistan and Pakistan is virtually impossible because they claim to be Sunni, Tajik, Farsiwan, or Pashtun, or they identify themselves according to their place of origin in India. Population estimates for Afghanistan range from 30,000 to 200,000, but some suggest the figure is closer to one million. The story is similar in Pakistan. Few influential Qizilbash live in Iran, their original home...</ref><ref>Social Structure. — Ethnic Groups, page 104. // [https://books.google.com/books?id=X0CLyC39MEgC&q=qizilbash+afghanistan Afghanistan: A Country Study]. Editors: Richard F. Nyrop, Donald M. Seekins. Baton Rouge: Claitor's Law Books and Publishing Division, 2001, 226 pages. {{ISBN|9781579807443}}{{pull quote|In 1996, approximately 40 percent of Afghans were Pashtun, 11.4 of whom are of the Durrani tribal group and 13.8 percent of the Ghilzai group. Tajiks make up the second-largest ethnic group with 25.3 percent of the population, followed by Hazaras, 18 percent; Uzbeks, 6.3 percent; Turkmen, 2.5 percent; Qizilbash, 1.0; 6.9 percent other. The usual caveat regarding statistics is particularly appropriate here.}}</ref> They are currently [[Social:Persian language|Persian]]-speaking Shi'i Muslims.

Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone described the Qizilbash of Kabul in the beginning of the 19th century as ''"a colony of Turks,"'' who spoke ''"Persian, and among themselves Turkish."''<ref>Mountstuart Elphinstone, An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul, pp. 320–321</ref> Described as learned, affluent, and influential, they appear to have abandoned their native Turkish language in favour of Persian, and became ''"in fact Persianized Turks"''.<ref>Henry Yule, "Hobson-Jobson", London, 1886, p. 380</ref> Lady Florentia Sale (wife of Sir Robert Henry Sale) and Vincent Eyre – both companions of Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone – described the Qizilbash of Afghanistan also as ''"Persians, of Persian descent, or descendant of the Persians, wearing a red cap"''.<ref>Lady Sale, "A Journal of the Disasters in Afghanistan 1841–42", [[Place:London|London]], Murray 1843, p. IX</ref><ref>Vincent Eyre, "The Military Operations at Cabul", London, Murray, MDCCCXLIII, p. XXXI.</ref>

The influence of the Qizilbash in the government created resentment among the ruling Pashtun clans, especially after the Qizilbash openly allied themselves with the British during the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842). During Abdur Rahman Khan's massacre of the Shi'i minorities in Afghanistan, the Qizilbash were declared "''enemies of the state''{{-"}} and were persecuted and hunted by the government and by the Sunni majority.<ref>''U.S. Library of Congress'', "Afghanistan: The society and its environment", index s.v. ''Qizilbash'', ([http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/50.htm Link])</ref>

The former national anthem (2006-2021) of Afghanistan mentioned Qizilbash as an ethnic group in the third line of third stanza.

=== Iran ===
Following Shah Abbas's gradual replacement of the Qizilbash in the Safavid military and administrative ranks, and the persecution they faced at the hands of his and Shah Safi's policies, the Qizilbash started to turn and rebel against the Safavids. This then lead to the empire adopting more classical Twelver beliefs and it cooperating with Shi'i scholars in combatting Qizilbash doctrines, eventually causing their decline in favour of a more orthodox interpretation of Twelver Shi'ism.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Arjomand |first=Said Amir |date=1994 |title=Introduction: Religion and Statecraft in Pre-Modern Iran |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4310883 |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=27 |issue=1/4 |pages=5–8 |doi=10.1080/00210869408701817 |jstor=4310883 |issn=0021-0862}}</ref>

===Bulgaria, Greece and Romania===
A strip of land from Babadag in Romania until Dimetoka in Greece is the land of Qizilbash nowadays. This strip includes a part of eastern Bulgaria, including cities as Dobruja and Silistre. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Canbakal |first1=Hülya |title=The Ottoman State and Descendants of the Prophet in Anatolia and the Balkans (c. 1500-1700) |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |date=November 2009 |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=542–578 |doi=10.1163/156852009X458241 |jstor=25651184 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25651184 |access-date=6 May 2023}}</ref>
Most of the Qizilbash settled in Dobruja in large numbers, either voluntarily or by being deported there from Anatolia by the Ottoman authorities between the 15th and 17th centuries.<ref name=eminov /> Qizilbash communities are also present in Ludogorie (Deliorman).<ref name=deliorman>{{cite book|title=Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society Between Europe and the Arab World|author=H. T. Norris|year=1993|page=98}}</ref><ref>{{TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/kizilbas|title=KIZILBAŞ|author=İlyas Üzüm}}</ref>

The Qizilbash conceal their real identity, outwardly professing to be orthodox Sunnis to their Turkish or Bulgarian neighbours, or alternatively claim to be Bektashis, depending who is addressing them.<ref name=deliorman /> According to the 1992 census, there were 85,773 Shiites in Bulgaria.<ref name=eminov>Eminov, A. (2000). Turks and Tatars in Bulgaria and the Balkans. Nationalities Papers, 28(1), 129-164.</ref>

===Syria/Lebanon===
Between the late seventeenth century and 1822, the term "Qizilbash" was also used in Ottoman administrative documents to identify Twelver (Imami) Shiites in what is today Lebanon. The Ottomans were aware they had no link to the Anatolian or Iranian Qizilbash, employing the term only as a means to delegitimize them or justify punitive campaigns against them. In the early eighteenth century, a part of northern Lebanon is even described as the "Kızılbaş mukataa" tax district.<ref>Stefan Winter, "The Kızılbaş of Syria and Ottoman Shiism" in Christine Woodhead, ed., The Ottoman World (London: Routledge, 2012), 171–183.</ref>

===Turkey===

In Turkey, there is a community of so-called ''Alevis'', which were formed out of Qizilbash groups in Anatolia in the 16<small>th</small> century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yıldırım |first1=Rıza |title=The Safavid-Qizilbash Ecumene and the Formation of the Qizilbash-Alevi Community in the Ottoman Empire, c. 1500–c. 1700 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/iranian-studies/article/abs/safavidqizilbash-ecumene-and-the-formation-of-the-qizilbashalevi-community-in-the-ottoman-empire-c-1500c-1700/23E2C81B4BAD0DFAAADD54A25EEB5896 |journal=Iranian Studies |year=2019 |volume=52 |issue=3–4 |pages=449–483 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1080/00210862.2019.1646120 |hdl=11693/53335 |s2cid=204476564 |access-date=5 May 2023}}</ref> Historically, however, it wouldn't be appropriate to use the term ''Alevi'' to describe these groups, seeing as the it is originally used for descendants of Ali, the fourth [[Religion:Rashidun|Rashidun]] Caliph.<ref name="Melikoff">{{cite book |last1=Mélikoff |first1=Irène |title=Sur les traces du soufisme turc: Recherches sur l'Islam populaire en Anatolie |date=2011 |publisher=Gorgias Press |location=Piscataway, NJ, USA |page=35 |doi=10.31826/9781463233389-004 |url=https://doi.org/10.31826/9781463233389-004|access-date=17 May 2023}}</ref> In the 19<small>th</small> century, the term was also used in Turkey to refer to the Qizilbash, who were seen as heretics by the Sunni majority. <ref name="Melikoff" /> Alevism in Turkey is present among the Turkish, Kurdish, as well as the Zaza population. Yet, despite speaking Kurdish and Zaza natively, many of the Alevi tribes still use Turkish as a liturgical language.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://brill.com/view/title/469 |title=Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium "Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present", Berlin, 14-17 April 1995 |date=1997-01-01 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-37898-8 |editor-last=Kehl-Bodrogi |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1163/9789004378988 |editor-last2=Otter-Beaujean |editor-last3=Kellner-Heikele |editor-first3=Barbara}}</ref> The Kurdish Alevis are known locally by the term ''Kızılbaş'', associating them with the Qizilbash in the Safavid dynasty, although their exact origins are unclear and subject to debate.<ref name=":0" /> Among Bektashis, ''Kızılbaş'' is used to refer to groups that are not initiated into the Bektashi order but have similar beliefs. These groups are looked down upon by initiated members of the tariqa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Birge |first=John Kingsley |title=The Bektashi Order of Dervishes |publisher=Luzac & Co |year=1965 |location=London |pages=64}}</ref> 

In the second half of the 19<small>th</small> century, a Western interest in the origins and political orientations of the Qizilbash sparked,<ref name="Academic">{{cite book |last1=Dressler |first1=Markus |title=Writing Religion: The Making of Turkish Alevi Islam |date=7 June 2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=31–77 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199969401.003.0002 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199969401.003.0002 |access-date=17 May 2023}}</ref> resulting in them becoming the target of Western missionaries, who believed that they held Christian views about Jesus. The Qizilbash weren't hostile towards these missionaries and, according to missionary reports, some were willing to listen to their message.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Karakaya-Stump |first1=Ayfer |title=Archaeology, Anthropology and Heritage in the Balkans and Anatolia |date=2010 |publisher=Gorgias Press |pages=333–338 |doi=10.31826/9781463225421-014 |url=https://doi.org/10.31826/9781463225421-014 |access-date=18 May 2023}}</ref> In turn, the Ottoman authorities responded by making more efforts to classify the Qizilbash as Muslims, though the Qizilbash did not always accept these efforts, such that they would openly decline them at times. Despite such adversarial interactions, a clear picture of how these groups perceived their relations with the Ottoman government or the Western missionaries has not yet been established.<ref name="Academic" /> Hans-Lukas Kieser talks about an "Alevi renaissance" which, according to him, took place in the Tanzimat period, as well as later, after the Young Turk Revolution.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kieser |first1=Hans-Lukas |title=Altruism and Imperialism: Western Cultural and Religious Missions in the Middle East |date=2002 |publisher=Middle East Institute, Columbia University |location=New York |page=136 |isbn=097212313X }}</ref> There are some doubts, though, whether this term is appropriate, due to the scarcity of sources and the diversity of the various Qizilbash-groups.<ref name="Academic" />
{{Quote|It has been reported that, among the Ottoman Turks, ''kızılbaş'' has become something of a derogatory term and can be applied to groups that aren't necessarily associated with the Kazilbash of Central Asia. The Bektaşi in Turkey are often referred to as ''Kızılbaşi''.<ref>John Winter Crowfoot, "Survivals among the Kappadokian Kizilbash (Bektash)", ''Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland'', 30., 1900, pp. 305–20</ref>}}

==See also==
* Aleviler
* Bektashism and folk religion
* Javanshir Qizilbash
* Mirza Kalich Beg
* Nosairis

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Note}}
==Citations==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==General sources==
* Yves Bomati and Houchang Nahavandi,''Shah Abbas, Emperor of Persia,1587–1629'', 2017, ed. Ketab Corporation, Los Angeles, {{ISBN|978-1595845672}}, English translation by Azizeh Azodi.
* {{cite book |last1=Amanat|first1=Abbas|title=Iran: A Modern History|date=2017 |publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300112542}}
* {{cite book|last1=Aslanian|first1=Sebouh|title=From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa|date=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=California|isbn=978-0520947573}}
* {{cite book|last1=Blow|first1=David|title=Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend|date=2009|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0857716767}}
* {{cite book|last1=Bournoutian|first1=George|title=A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present)|date=2002|publisher=Mazda Publishers|isbn=978-1568591414|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor/page/208 208]|edition=2|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor/page/208}}
* {{cite book|last1=Floor|first1=Willem|last2=Herzig|first2=Edmund|title=Iran and the World in the Safavid Age|date=2012|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1850439301}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mikaberidze|first1=Alexander|title=Historical Dictionary of Georgia|date=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1442241466|edition=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JNNQCgAAQBAJ&q=sakhltukhutsesi}}
* {{cite book|last1=Rothman|first1=E. Nathalie|title=Brokering Empire: Trans-Imperial Subjects between Venice and Istanbul|date=2015|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0801463129}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Esmāʿīl Ṣafawī | last1 = Savory | first1 = Roger M. | last2= Karamustafa |first2= Ahmet T. | url = https://iranicaonline.org/articles/esmail-i-safawi | encyclopedia  = Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. III, Fasc. 5 | pages = 514–522 | location = New York | year = 1998 }}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last1=Aldous |first1=Gregory |title=The Qizilbāsh and their Shah: The Preservation of Royal Prerogative during the Early Reign of Shah Ṭahmāsp |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |date=2021 |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=743–758 |doi=10.1017/S1356186321000250|s2cid=236547130 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Baltacıoğlu-Brammer |first1=Ayşe |editor1-last=Erginbaş |editor1-first=Vefa |title=Ottoman Sunnism: New Perspectives |date=2019 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |pages=47–70 |chapter=One Word, Many Implications: The Term ‘Kızılbaş’ in the Early Modern Ottoman Context}}
* {{cite book |last1=Baltacıoğlu-Brammer |first1=Ayşe |editor1-last=Krstić |editor1-first=Tijana |editor2-last=Terzioğlu |editor2-first=Derin |title=Historicizing Sunni Islam in the Ottoman Empire, c. 1450–c. 1750 |date=2020 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004440296 |pages=423–450 |chapter=Neither Victim Nor Accomplice: The Kızılbaş as Borderland Actors in the Early Modern Ottoman Realm}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bashir |first1=Shahzad |title=The Origins and Rhetorical Evolution of the Term Qizilbāsh in Persianate Literature |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |date=2014 |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=364–391|doi=10.1163/15685209-12341352 }}


[[Category:History of Western Asia]]

{{Sourceattribution|Qizilbash|1}}