View source for Earth:Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes

{{Short description|Valley within Katmai National Park and Preserve, Alaska, United States}}
[[File:Griggs Camp.png|thumb|Griggs camp during the 1916 expedition clearly showing the numerous "smokes"]]
[[Image:AKPen2.jpg|thumb|Knife Creek Gorge]]

The '''Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes''' is a [[Earth:Valley|valley]] within Katmai National Park and Preserve in [[Earth:Alaska|Alaska]] which is filled with [[Earth:Volcanic ash|ash]] flow from the eruption of [[Earth:Novarupta|Novarupta]] on June 6–8, 1912.<ref name="VoTTST">{{cite web
  | title = Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes Tour
  | work = Katmai National Park & Preserve
  | publisher = National Park Service
  | date = August 28, 2008
  | url = http://www.nps.gov/katm/planyourvisit/valley-of-ten-thousand-smokes-tour.htm
  | access-date = January 14, 2009}}
</ref> Following the eruption, thousands of fumaroles vented steam from the ash. Robert F. Griggs, who explored the [[Earth:Volcano|volcano]]'s aftermath for the [[Organization:National Geographic Society|National Geographic Society]] in 1916, gave the valley its name, saying that "the whole valley as far as the eye could reach was full of hundreds, no thousands—literally, tens of thousands—of smokes curling up from its fissured floor."

Prior to the eruption, the area now called the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes was an unremarkable and unnamed portion of the Ukak River valley. Although never permanently inhabited by humans, it served as a pass for the Alutiiq people, as well as animals such as [[Biology:Grizzly bear|grizzly bear]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/katm/learn/nature/valley-of-ten-thousand-smokes.htm|title=Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes and the 1912 Novarupta-Katmai Eruption - Katmai National Park & Preserve (U.S. National Park Service)|website=www.nps.gov|language=en|access-date=October 27, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20120605-the-valley-of-ten-thousand-smokes|title=The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes|last=Bodry|first=Catherine|access-date=October 27, 2017}}</ref>

The 1912 eruption was the largest eruption by volume in the 20th century, erupting a [[Biology:Magma|magma]] volume of about {{convert|13|km3|cumi|sigfig=2|sp=us}}. As many as 14 major earthquakes between [[Richter magnitude scale|<math>M \text{s}</math> 6 to 7]], and over 100 earthquakes greater than <math>M_\text{s}</math> 5, resulted from the collapse of the [[Earth:Caldera|caldera]] at [[Earth:Mount Katmai|Mount Katmai]] and movement within the magmatic plumbing system.<ref name="USGS">{{cite book |last1=Hildreth |first1=Wes |title=Geologic Map of the Katmai Volcanic Cluster, Katmai National Park, Alaska |last2=Firstein |first2=Judy |date=2003 |publisher=USGS Geologic Investigations Series Pamphlet I-2778 |pages=15–16 |id={{DGGS|14836}}}}</ref><ref name="USGS2">{{cite book |last1=Hildreth |first1=W. |title=The Novarupta-Katmai eruption of 1912- largest eruption of the twentieth century; centennial perspectives |last2=Fierstein |first2=J. |date=2012 |publisher=USGS Professional Paper 1791 |location=Reston |page=135 |id={{DGGS|29955}} {{Academia.edu|47452498}}}}</ref>
[[File:River eroding volcanic ash flow Alaska Southwest, Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes.jpg|thumb|left|River eroding volcanic ash flow, Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes]]

[[Image:RiverLethe.jpg|thumb|[[Earth:Canyon|Canyon]] cut in ash by River Lethe]]

The ash-filled valley covers a {{convert|40|sqmi|km2|sigfig=2|adj=on}} area.<ref name="readersnatural" /> The ash can be up to {{convert|700|ft|m|sigfig=2}} deep.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://alaskahistoricalsociety.org/discover-alaska/kids-page/the-valley-of-ten-thousand-smokes-in-katmai-national-park-and-preserve/|title=The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes in Katmai National Park and Preserve {{!}} Alaska Historical Society|website=alaskahistoricalsociety.org|language=en-US|access-date=October 27, 2017}}</ref> In places deep canyons have been cut by the River Lethe, allowing observers to see the ash flow [[Earth:Stratum|strata]]. Since the ash has cooled, most of the fumaroles are now extinct and despite its name the valley is no longer filled with 'smoke' (i.e. steam).<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book|title=Natural Wonders of the World|publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc|year=1980|isbn=0-89577-087-3|editor-last=Scheffel|editor-first=Richard L.|location=United States of America|pages=394|editor-last2=Wernet|editor-first2=Susan J.}}</ref> Vegetation still does not grow in the valley.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xr7v7GNmHs0C&dq=valley+of+ten+thousand+smokes+created&pg=PA557|title=Geology of National Parks|last1=Harris|first1=Ann G.|last2=Tuttle|first2=Esther|last3=Tuttle|first3=Sherwood D.|date=2004|publisher=Kendall Hunt|isbn=9780787299705|language=en}}</ref> The signs of volcanic activity are still visible on nearby hills.

Katmai's most recent eruption was in 1927, but there have been non-eruptive events as recently as 2003.  The [[Earth:Alaska Volcano Observatory|Alaska Volcano Observatory]] still monitors Katmai's activity as part of the Katmai Cluster, where there are five active stratovolcanos within {{convert|15|km|mi|0|sp=us}} of Katmai.

Visitors to the valley most commonly arrive via bus along the {{convert|20|mi|km|0|adj=on}} road from Brooks Camp, which is the only road in Katmai Park. The valley is a source of creative exploration by photographers and naturalists.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Freeburg|first1=Gary|title=Valley of 10,000 Smokes: Revisiting the Alaskan Sublime|date=2012|publisher=George F. Thompson Publishing|location=Staunton, VA|isbn=978-1-938086-03-8|edition=First}}</ref>

==Geology==
Basement rocks in the area consist of the Late Jurassic Naknek Formation, which is composed of [[Earth:Siltstone|siltstone]]s, and arkosic [[Earth:Sandstone|sandstone]]s 1.7–2&nbsp;km thick deposited in a [[Earth:Continental shelf|marine shelf]] and submarine fan delta environment during the Oxfordian-Tithonian. Some 20 [[Earth:Diorite|dioritic]] and [[Earth:Granodiorite|granodioritic]] [[Earth:Tertiary|Tertiary]] plutons pierce the formation.  Most prevalent though are the [[Earth:Quaternary|Quaternary]] stratovolcanoes along the [[Earth:Aleutian Arc|Aleutian Arc]] associated with the Aleutian subduction zone.<ref name=USGS2/>{{rp|17–18}}

The 1912 Novarupta eruption was characterized by three main episodes spanning 60 hours.  Episode I included both a rhyolitic [[Earth:Ignimbrite|ignimbrite]] and a simultaneous Plinian dispersal of rhyolitic tephra fallout.  The ignimbrite consisted of 9 separate packages of [[Earth:Pumice|pumice]]ous [[Earth:Pyroclastic rock|pyroclastic]] flow deposits, radiating outward 9&nbsp;km, and which filled 11&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> of the valley to a depth of 100–200 m in the upper portion and 35 m in the lower over the span of 16 hours.  It is indurated in the upper valley while nonwelded in the lower.  The ignimbrite is noted for its fumaroles, [[Earth:Phreatic eruption|phreatic]] craters, welded tuff, and flattened [[Earth:Fiamme|fiamme]].  At the same time, a Plinian dispersal of 8.8&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> of rhyolitic tephra occurred depositing layers A and B.  Episode II consisted of a second Plinian dispersal, but one consisting of dacite tephra, depositing 4.8&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> of layers C and D.  Episode III was also a Plinian dispersal of dacite tephra depositing 3.4&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> of layers F and G.<ref name=USGS2/>{{rp|4–5,18–20,45–48,143–146}}

The explosion from the eruption was heard as far away as Fairbanks and Juneau, while earthquakes continued until mid-Aug. [[Astronomy:Ball lightning|Ball lightning]] near the ground was noted in addition to regular thunder and lightning, rare in South Alaska, while severe static disrupted wireless transmissions.  Volcanic dust reached Wisconsin on June 8, Algeria on June 19 and California on June 21.  Fields of pumice were seen floating in Katmai Bay, 241&nbsp;km to the southwest, in 1913.  Griggs noted 1000 fumarolic plumes over 500 feet high in 1916.  In 1917, diffuse steam emanations were still evident and temperatures were 97&nbsp;°C just 1 m below the surface.  In 1918, Jasper Sayre and Paul Hagelbarger noted 86 vents with temperatures greater than 190&nbsp;°C, the hottest being 432&nbsp;°C.  The steam was measured to be 99.5% water vapor with some acidic gases of [[Chemistry:Hydrogen chloride|HCl]], CO<sub>2</sub>, H<sub>2</sub>S and [[Chemistry:Hydrogen fluoride|HF]].  Only a few hundred emanations were seen by 1929, and just 10 were left by 1940.<ref name=USGS2/>{{rp|4–5,18–20,45–48,143–146}} 
<gallery>
File:AshFlowColumn.png|Time sequence of the 1912 Novarupta eruption showing three episodes of Plinian pumice falls over the span of 60 hours, and 9 packages of ignimbrite over the span of 16 hours
File:IgnimbritePackages.png|Sequence of 9 ignimbrite packages over the span of 16 hours during the 1912 Novarupta eruption
File:AshContours.png|Contour lines, cm scale, showing accumulation of ash from 3 episodes of Plinian pumice falls over 60 hours during the 1912 Novarupta eruption
File:FunnelFumarole.png|Funnel fumarole found in the valley
File:PhreaticCrater.png|One of 60 [[Earth:Phreatic eruption|phreatic]] craters, 20–60 m in diameter, with [[Earth:Tuff|tuff]] rings and ejected welded ignimbrite
File:Colorful ash Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes.jpg|alt=Springtime in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes|Springtime in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes
</gallery>

==Astronaut training==
The Katmai Peninsula in general, and the valley in particular, were used by [[Organization:NASA|NASA]] and the USGS to geologically train the Apollo astronauts in recognizing volcanic features, landforms and materials, especially fumaroles and vents.  Two separate groups of astronauts trained here, the first in June–July 1965 and a second group in August 1966.  Their field exercises included simulating a lunar mission.  "Playing the Moon game", involved pairing up astronauts and placing them in a location with very little prior information.  They then planned traverses and collected representative samples.  They communicated with their geologist instructors via radio.  Astronauts who would use this training on the Moon included [[Engineering:Apollo 11|Apollo 11]]'s [[Biography:Buzz Aldrin|Buzz Aldrin]], [[Engineering:Apollo 12|Apollo 12]]'s Alan Bean, [[Engineering:Apollo 14|Apollo 14]]'s [[Biography:Edgar Mitchell|Edgar Mitchell]], [[Engineering:Apollo 15|Apollo 15]]'s James Irwin, [[Engineering:Apollo 16|Apollo 16]]'s Charlie Duke, and [[Engineering:Apollo 17|Apollo 17]]'s [[Biography:Gene Cernan|Gene Cernan]] and Jack Schmitt.  Notable geologist instructors included Garniss Curtis and Gene Shoemaker.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Phinney |first1=William |title=Science Training History of the Apollo Astronauts |date=2015 |publisher=NASA SP -2015-626 |pages=63–65,189,192,222,224}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=Bo |title=Rods & Wings |date=2000 |publisher=Publication Consultants |location=Anchorage |isbn=9781888125627 |pages=165–168}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.avo.alaska.edu/volcanoes/volcinfo.php?volcname=Katmai Alaska Volcano Observatory page on Katmai]
*[http://pubs.usgs.gov/imap/i2778/ Maps of region]

{{Coord|58|23|38|N|155|23|07|W|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Valley Of Ten Thousand Smokes}}
[[Category:Volcanoes of Alaska]]

{{Sourceattribution|Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes}}