View source for Earth:Sustainability standards and certification

{{Short description|Voluntary guidelines to show good practices}}

'''Sustainability standards and certifications''' are [[Social:Voluntary compliance|voluntary]] guidelines used by producers, manufacturers, traders, retailers, and service providers to demonstrate their commitment to good environmental, social, ethical, and food safety practices. There are over 400 such [[Technical standard|standards]] across the world.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Market Coverage|url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/market-coverage/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-02-10|website=State of Sustainability Initiatives|language=en-CA}}</ref>

The trend started in the late 1980s and 1990s with the introduction of Ecolabels and [[Technical standard|standards]] for organic food and other products.  Most standards refer to the [[Social:Triple bottom line|triple bottom line]] of environmental quality, social equity, and economic prosperity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf|title=The Brundtland Report: Our Common Future|last=World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED)|date=1987|access-date=July 18, 2019}}</ref> A [[Technical standard|standard]] is normally developed by a broad range of stakeholders and experts in a particular sector and includes a set of practices or criteria for how a crop should be sustainably grown or a resource should be ethically harvested.

This might cover, for instance, responsible fishing practices that do not endanger marine biodiversity or respect for human rights, and the payment of fair wages on a coffee or tea plantation. Normally sustainability standards are accompanied by a verification process – often referred to as "[[Social:Certification|certification]]" – to evaluate that an enterprise complies with a standard, as well as a traceability process for [https://www.epa.gov/greenerproducts certified products] to be sold along the [[Supply chain|supply chain]], often resulting in a consumer-facing label.

[[Social:Certification|Certification]] programs also focus on capacity building and working with partners and other organizations to support smallholders or disadvantaged producers to make the social and environmental improvements needed to meet the [[Technical standard|standard]].

The basic premise of sustainability standards is two-fold:
# Weak legislation and strong demand for action: Sustainability standards emerged in areas where weak national and global legislation existed but where the consumer and NGO movements around the globe demanded action. For example, campaigns by Global Exchange<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20030618203029/http://www.globalexchange.org/campaigns/sweatshops/nike/ Global Exchange Campaign - Nike]</ref> and other NGOs against the purchase of goods from "[[Social:Sweatshop|sweatshop]]" factories by companies like [[Company:Nike, Inc.|Nike, Inc.]], Levi Strauss & Co., and other leading brands led to the emergence of social welfare standards like the SA8000 and others.
# Environmental Merits - Leading brands who sold to both consumers and to the [[Business-to-business|B2B]] supply chain, and wished to demonstrate the environmental or organic merits of their products led to the emergence of hundreds of eco-labels, organic and other [[Technical standard|standards]].

A leading example of a consumer standard is the Fairtrade movement, administered by FLO International and exhibiting huge sales growth around the world for ethically sourced produce.<ref>[http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/press_office/press_releases_and_statements/jun_2009/global_fairtrade_sales_increase_by_22.aspx Fairtrade Growth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225094221/http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/press_office/press_releases_and_statements/jun_2009/global_fairtrade_sales_increase_by_22.aspx |date=2010-12-25 }}</ref>  An example of a [[Business-to-business|B2B]] standard that has grown tremendously in the last few years is the Forest Stewardship Council’s standard (FSC) for forest products made from sustainably harvested trees.

The line between consumer and B2B sustainability standards is becoming blurred, with leading trade buyers increasingly demanding Fairtrade certification, for example, and consumers increasingly recognizing the FSC mark. In recent years{{when|date=April 2022}}, the business-to-business focus of sustainability standards has risen as it has become clear that consumer demand alone cannot drive the transformation of major sectors and industries{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}. In commodities such as palm oil, soy, farmed seafood, and sugar, [[Social:Certification|certification]] initiatives are targeting the mainstream adoption of better practices and pre-competitive industry collaboration. Major brands and retailers are also starting to make commitments to [[Social:Certification|certification]] in their whole supply chain or product offering, rather than a single product line or ingredient.{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}

The number of Sustainability Standards has continued to grow; currently, there are around 264 active VSS (according to the [[Organization:International Trade Centre|International Trade Center]] Standards Map) in 194 countries and 15 sectors,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sustainability Map|url=https://www.standardsmap.org/standards?q=eyJzZWxlY3RlZENsaWVudCI6Ik5PIEFGRklMSUFUSU9OIn0=|access-date=2021-03-03|website=www.standardsmap.org}}</ref> and about 457 ecolabels (according to Ecolabel Index) in 199 countries, and 25 industry sectors.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ecolabel Index {{!}} Who's deciding what's green?|url=http://www.ecolabelindex.com/|access-date=2021-03-03|website=www.ecolabelindex.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Trade Impact of Voluntary Sustainability Standards: A review of empirical evidence|url=https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/ser-rp-2020d9_en.pdf}}</ref>

== International and private standards supporting sustainability ==

Sustainability standards can be categorized as either [[Technical standard|voluntary consensus standards]] or [[Technical standard|private standards]]. [[Organization:International Organization for Standardization|International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) is an example of an [[Engineering:Standards organization|standards organization]] who develop international standards following a voluntary consensus process for sustainability under Technical Committee 207, Environmental management and Technical Committee 268, Sustainable cities and communities.<ref>{{cite web |title=Developing sustainably |url=https://www.iso.org/developing-sustainably.html |website=iso.org |publisher=International Organization for Standardization |access-date=20 February 2023}}</ref> These Committees connect with Technical Committee 61, Plastics working on mandates such standards for eliminating plastic pollution.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Birkbeck |first1=Carolyn Deere |last2=Sugathan |first2=Mahesh |last3=Boinnard |first3=Sophie |last4=Grekova |first4=Valeriia |last5=Cleeland |first5=Belinda |title=Standards and Related Initiatives in International Cooperation to End Plastic Pollution: Mapping and State of Play |date=September 2023 |publisher=Forum on Trade, Environment, & the SDGs (TESS) |location=Geneva, Switzerland |pages=https://tessforum.org/latest/standards-and-related-initiatives-in-international-cooperation-to-end-plastic-pollution-mapping-and-state-of-play}}</ref> In September 2023, ISO and the [[Organization:United Nations Development Programme|United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP) signed a  Statement of Intent, as a joint commitment to the role of International Standards in addressing sustainability.<ref>{{cite web |title=ISO and UNDP announce partnership to enhance sustainability action |url=https://www.iso.org/news/am23/iso-and-undp-announce-partnership-to-enhance-sustainability-action |website=iso.org |publisher=The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) |access-date=10 October 2023}}</ref>

Many of the international standards developed to help guide sustainability goals and certification schemes originate from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).<ref>[//www.fao.org/home/en/ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]</ref>  The FAO has promulgated several standards for certifying bodies to adhere to.  In particular, the FAO has issued guidelines and standards designed to make agriculture, fisheries, and forestry more sustainable.

Some of the sustainability standards were initiated by social movements in particular countries, such as Rainforest Alliance in the United States and Fairtrade certification in the Netherlands{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}. Standards were initiated by individual companies, using [[Technical standard|private standards]], such as Utz Certified (Ahold), C.A.F.E. Practices (Starbucks), and Nespresso AAA ([[Company:Nespresso|Nespresso]]).

With the objective of [[Harmonization (standards)|standard harmonization]], some [[Technical standard|standards]] were launched by coalitions of private firms (also referred to as [[Social:Multistakeholder governance|multistakeholder governance]], development agencies, NGOs, and other stakeholders, such as the [[Organization:Marine Stewardship Council|Marine Stewardship Council]], or MSC standard, developed as a collaboration between [[Company:Unilever|Unilever]] and the World Wildlife Fund. For example, the Common Code for the Coffee Community (4C) was initiated by an alliance of large American coffee roasters, including Kraft Foods, Sara Lee, and Nestle, assisted by the German Agency for Technical Cooperation and Development ([[Organization:Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit|GIZ]]).

One important facilitator of the development of most global [[Technical standard|standards]] was a series of local development projects involving NGOs, coffee roasters, and producers in different developing countries. For example, the Fairtrade [[Technical standard|private standard]] was developed based on pilot projects with Mexican farmers. 4C builds on development projects in Peru, Colombia, and Vietnam, involving GIZ, major coffee roasters, and local producers.<ref>[https://ssrn.com/abstract=1668888 Article on the Development of the Common Code for the Coffee Community]</ref>

The most widely established and adopted standards are in agriculture, with 40% of global coffee production certified to one of the main schemes, and approximately 15–20% of cocoa and tea production being compliant with major international standards. Forestry and wild seafood are also sectors in which standards have been influential, with certified production pushing past 10% of the global share. Cotton, palm oil, soy, [[Earth:Biofuel|biofuel]]s and farmed seafood are some of the commodities in which [[Social:Certification|certification]] is growing the fastest, due in part to major roundtables that have been set up to bring the whole industry together. More recently, standards have started to emerge for mining and the [https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/metal-extraction#:~:text=Commercial%20extraction%20of%20metals%20from,low%20grade)%20of%20desired%20elements. extraction of metals] – including gold, silver, aluminium, and oil and gas – as well as for cattle, electronics, plastics and tourism.

Evidence suggests that Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) adopted willingly by firms can be more effective than government-regulated CSR so global standards by private companies show promise for effective social impact.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Armstrong|first1=J. Scott|last2=Green|first2=Kesten C.|title=Effects of corporate social responsibility and irresponsibility policies|journal=Journal of Business Research|volume=66|issue=10|pages=1922–1927|date=2013|url=http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/43007/1/MPRA_paper_43007.pdf|doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.02.014|citeseerx=10.1.1.663.508|s2cid=145059055}}</ref> Counter-arguments are discussed which express concerns around private sector, corporation-led, [[Social:Multistakeholder governance|multistakeholder governance]] who adopt "weak or narrow standards" that "better serve corporate interests than rights holder interests" for self-regulation in the absence of government regulation.<ref>{{cite book |title=Not Fit-for-Purpose The Grand Experiment of Multi-Stakeholder Initiatives in Corporate Accountability, Human Rights and Global Governance |date=July 2020 |publisher=MSI Integrity |location=San Francisco: Institute for Multi-Stakeholder Initiative Integrity |url=https://www.msi-integrity.org/not-fit-for-purpose/ }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |title=Multistakeholderism: a critical look |url=https://www.tni.org/en/publication/multistakeholderism-a-critical-look |website=tni.org |publisher=Transnational Institute}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |title=Who's Tipping the Scales? |url=http://www.ipes-food.org/pages/tippingthescales |website=ipes-food.org |publisher=IPES-Food}}</ref>

The creation of the ISEAL Alliance as a private organization in 2002 was the first collaborative effort amongst a group of sustainability standards organizations to agree to follow common good practices for [[Harmonization (standards)|harmonized standards]] implementation and also to work together to drive up the use of private standards and [[Social:Certification|certification]] globally. In 2022, ISEAL reported 42% of their funding came from government grants. With generous
support from organizations such as The [[Company:Walmart|Walmart]] Foundation, Fairtrade USA and Rainforest Alliance.<ref>{{cite web |title=ISEAL Annual Report 2022 |url=https://www.isealalliance.org/get-involved/resources/annual-report-2022 |website=isealalliance.org |publisher=ISEAL Alliance |access-date=16 August 2023}}</ref>

== Sustainability standards ==

Numerous sustainability standards have been developed to address issues of environmental quality, social equity, and economic prosperity in global production and trade practices. Despite similarities in major goals and [[Social:Certification|certification]] procedures, there are some significant differences in terms of their historical development, target groups of adopters, geographical diffusion, and emphasis on environmental, social, or economic issues.<ref>[https://ssrn.com/abstract=1678472 Introduction to different standards]</ref>

One of the major differences is based on the level of strictness of the [[Technical standard|standard]]. Some standards set the bar high for a sector, promoting strong social and environmental practices and working with the top performers to constantly push up sustainability expectations{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}. Other standards are more focused on eliminating the worst practices and operate at more of an entry-level to get a large proportion of an industry working incrementally towards better practices. Often there are strategies between standards to move producers along this performance ladder of sustainability{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}. Another important distinction is that some standards can be applied internationally (usually with mechanisms to ensure local relevance and appropriateness), in contrast other standards are developed entirely with a regional or national focus{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}.

Additional differences between [[Technical standard|standards]] might relate to the [[Social:Certification|certification]] process and whether it is conducted by a first, second or third party; the traceability system in place and whether it allows for the segregation or mixing of certified and non-certified materials; and the types of sustainability claims that are made on products.

=== Fairtrade ===

The Fairtrade label was developed in the late 1980s by a Dutch development agency in collaboration with Mexican farmers{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}. The initiative performs development work and promotes its political vision of an alternative economy, seeing its main objective in empowering small producers and providing these with access to and improving their position on global markets{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}.

The ''most distinguishing'' feature of the Fairtrade label is the guarantee of a minimum price and a social premium that goes to the cooperative and not to the producers directly. Recently{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}, Fairtrade also adopted environmental objectives as part of their [[Social:Certification|certification]] system.

In 2020, [[Organization:Fairtrade International|Fairtrade International]] issued a position statement,<ref>{{cite web |title=Fit for purpose? |url=https://www.fairtrade.net/issue/fit-for-purpose |website=fairtrade.net |publisher=Fairtrade International |date=2020}}</ref> defending their use of [[Technical standard|private standards]], in response to a report from The Institute for Multi-Stakeholder Initiative Integrity (MSI Integrity).

=== Rainforest Alliance ===
The Rainforest Alliance was created in the late 1980s from a social movement and is committed to conserving rainforests and their biodiversity. One key element of the standard is the compulsory elaboration and implementation of a detailed plan for the development of a sustainable farm management system to assist wildlife conservation.

Another objective is to improve workers’ welfare by establishing and securing ''sustainable'' livelihoods. Producer prices may carry a premium. Yet instead of guaranteeing a fixed floor price, the standard seeks to improve the economic situation of producers through higher yields and enhanced [[Cost efficiency|cost efficiency]]{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}.

=== UTZ Certified ===

UTZ Certified (formerly Utz Kapeh) was co-founded by the Dutch coffee roaster Ahold Coffee Company in 1997. It aims to create an open and transparent marketplace for socially and environmentally responsible agricultural products. ''Instruments'' include the UTZ Traceability System and the UTZ Code of Conduct.

The traceability system makes certified products traceable from producer to final buyer and has ''stringent'' chains of custody requirements. The UTZ Code of Conduct emphasizes both environmental practices (e.g. biodiversity conservation, waste handling, and water use) and social benefits (e.g. access to medical care, access to sanitary facilities at work).

=== Organic ===
The Organic standard was developed in the 1970s and is based on IFOAM Basic Standards.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Luttikholt |first=L. W. M. |date=2007-01-01 |title=Principles of organic agriculture as formulated by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements |journal=NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences |language=en |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=347–360 |doi=10.1016/S1573-5214(07)80008-X |s2cid=62898220 |issn=1573-5214|doi-access=free }}</ref> IFOAM stands for International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements and is the leading global umbrella organization for the organic farming movement. The IFOAM Basic Standards provide a framework of minimum requirements, including the omission of agrochemicals such as pesticides and chemical-synthetic fertilizers. The use of animal feeds is also strictly regulated. Genetic engineering and the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are forbidden{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}.

=== Sustainable Tourism ===
With increasing awareness, The tourism industry has a variety of sustainability standards for different subsectors. This includes standards for sustainable hotels, sustainable tour operators, sustainable events and conferences, sustainable destinations, and so on.

===LEED===
The [[Engineering:Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]] standards were developed by the US [[Organization:Green Building Council|Green Building Council]] in an effort to propel green building design in the United States. LEED certification can be attained through "compliance with all environmental laws and regulations, occupancy scenarios, building permanence and pre-rating completion, site boundaries and area-to-site ratios, and obligatory five-year sharing of whole building energy and water use data from the start of occupancy (for new construction) or date of [[Social:Certification|certification]] (for existing buildings)".<ref name="test">{{cite web |url=http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=6715 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-12-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205123305/http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=6715 |archive-date=2011-12-05 }}, additional text.</ref>

===Other examples===
Other types of standards include sector-specific schemes such as the [[Organization:Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil|Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil]] (RSPO); standards for climate and development interventions like the Gold Standard, retailer-led sustainability [[Social:Certification|certification]] initiatives such as GlobalGAP;
Corporate own-brand sustainability initiatives such as Starbucks' C.A.F.E. Practices; and national programs such as the Irish Food Board's 'Origin Green' scheme.<ref>[http://agritrade.cta.int/Agriculture/Topics/Product-differentiation/Special-report-Implications-of-sustainability-certification-schemes-for-the-ACP ''Agritrade'': Implications of sustainability certification schemes for the ACP] 16 November 2013</ref>

The United Nations Forum on Sustainability Standards (UNFSS) is a joint initiative of FAO, UNEP, ITC, UNCTAD, and UNIDO on Sustainability Standards.<ref>{{cite web|title=United Nations Forum on Sustainability Standards|url=https://unfss.org|website=UNFSS|publisher=United Nations|access-date=8 October 2017}}</ref> UNFSS is a neutral and credible platform to maximize the potential of Voluntary Sustainability Standards (VSS) as a means to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through:<ref>{{Cite web|title=About UNFSS|url=https://unfss.org/home/about-unfss/|access-date=2021-03-03|website=UNFSS|language=en-US}}</ref> Facilitating emerging economies' access to lucrative markets, stimulating well-informed dialogue among key stakeholders at the national and international level, and building capacities for producers and SMEs, to enhance opportunities in international trade.

== See also ==
*[[Social:Certification|Certification]]
*[[Social:Circles of Sustainability|Circles of Sustainability]]
*Ecolabel
*[[Harmonization (standards)]] 
*List of sustainability topics
*International Standard
*[[Engineering:Standards organization|Standards organization]]
*[[Earth:Sustainability|Sustainability]]
*[[Sustainable development]]
*[[Social:Sustainable sourcing|Sustainable sourcing]]
*Technical Standard
*United Nations Forum on Sustainability Standards

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Recommended readings ==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Baue|first1=Bill |year=2023
  |title=The Lost Decade: Sustainability Standards Sabotage Sustainability
  |journal= r3.0 (Redesign for Resilience & Regeneration)
  |url=https://www.r3-0.org/the-lost-decade/ }}
*{{cite book |first1=Emma |last1=Blackmore |first2=James |last2=Keeley |first3=Rhiannon |last3=Pyburn |first4=Ellen |last4=Mangus |first5=Lu |last5=Chen |first6=Qiao |last6=Yuhui |title=Pro-poor certification: Assessing the benefits of sustainability certification for small-scale farmers in Asia |date=March 2012 |publisher=IIED |isbn=978-1-84369-843-2 |url=https://pubs.iied.org/14604IIED/ }}
*{{cite journal
  |ssrn=2089976 |title=The Dynamics of Standardisation: Three Perspectives on Standards in Organization Studies
  |journal=Organization Studies |volume=33 |number=5–6 |pages=613–633 |doi=10.1177/0170840612450120 |s2cid=45252880 |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/73434/1/OS_Standards_Brunsson-Seidl-Rasche.pdf }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Gilbert |first1=D.U. |last2=Rasche |first2=A. |last3=Waddock |first3=S. |year=2011
  |ssrn=1709011
  |title=Accountability in a Global Economy: The Emergence of International Accountability Standards
  |journal=Business Ethics Quarterly |volume=21 |number=1 |pages=23–44 |doi=10.5840/beq20112112|s2cid=43387391 }} 
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Gilbert |first1=D.U. |last2=Rasche |first2=A. |year=2007
  |ssrn=1652151
  |title=Discourse Ethics and Social Accountability: The Ethics of SA 8000
  |journal=Business Ethics Quarterly |volume=17 |number=2 |pages=187–216 |doi=10.5840/beq200717230|s2cid=145330990 }} 
*{{cite web |last1=Giovannucci |first1=Daniele |title=Sustainable Coffee Survey of the North American Specialty Coffee Industry |url=http://www3.cec.org/islandora/en/item/1700-sustainable-coffee-survey-north-american-specialty-coffee-industry |date=2001 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Giovannucci |first1=Daniele |last2=Potts |first2=Jason |last3=Killian |first3=B. |last4=Wunderlich |first4=C. |last5=Schuller |first5=S. |last6=Soto |first6=G. |last7=Schroeder |first7=K. |last8=Vagneron |first8=I. |last9=Pinard |first9=F. |title=Seeking Sustainability: COSA preliminary analysis of sustainability initiatives in the coffee sector |date=2008 |url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/id/eprint/13401 |ssrn=1338582 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Gulbrandsen |first1=Lars H. |title=Accountability Arrangements in Non-State Standards Organizations: Instrumental Design and Imitation |journal=Organization |date=July 2008 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=563–583 |doi=10.1177/1350508408091007 |s2cid=145407056 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Kolk |first1=Ans |title=Corporate Social Responsibility in the Coffee Sector |journal=European Management Journal |date=April 2005 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=228–236 |doi=10.1016/j.emj.2005.02.003 |citeseerx=10.1.1.204.3754 }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Manning |first1=S. |last2=Boons |first2=F. |last3=Von Hagen |first3=O. |last4=Reinecke |first4=J
  |ssrn=1752655 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.08.029
  |title=National Contexts Matter: The Co-Evolution of Sustainability Standards in Global Value Chains
  |journal=Ecological Economics |year=2012 |volume=83 |pages=197–209 |s2cid=54715286 |url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/86263/1/RA14WP%202012%20EE%20National%20Contexts%20Matter.pdf }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Manning |first1=S. |last2=von Hagen |first2=O |year=2010
  |ssrn=1668888
  |title=Linking Local Experiments to Global Standards: How Project Networks Promote Global Institution-Building
  |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Management |volume=26 |number=4 |pages=398–416 |doi=10.1016/j.scaman.2010.09.003|s2cid=144234235 |url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/86270/1/RA8WP%202010%20SJM%20Global%20Project%20Networks.pdf }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Muradian |first1=Roldan |last2=Pelupessy |first2=Wim |title=Governing the coffee chain: The role of voluntary regulatory Systems |journal=World Development |date=December 2005 |volume=33 |issue=12 |pages=2029–2044 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.06.007 }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Rasche |first1=A. |year=2012 |ssrn=2129694
  |title=Global Policies and Local Practice: Loose and Tight Couplings in Multi-Stakeholder Initiatives
  |journal=Business Ethics Quarterly |volume=22 |number=4 |pages=679–708 |doi=10.5840/beq201222444|s2cid=144816840 }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Rasche |first1=A. |year=2010 |ssrn=1684763
  |title=Collaborative Governance 2.0 |journal=Corporate Governance |volume=10 |number=4 |pages=500–511 |doi=10.1108/14720701011069713|s2cid=154959736 }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Rasche |first1=A. |year=2009 |ssrn=1658503
  |title=Toward a Model to Compare and Analyze Accountability Standards
  |journal=Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management |volume=16 |number=4 |pages=192–205 |doi=10.1002/csr.202|s2cid=62898416 }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Reinecke |first1=J. |year=2010 |journal=Organization |volume=17 |number=5 |pages=1–19
  |title=Beyond a subjective theory of value and towards a 'fair price': an organizational perspective on Fairtrade minimum price setting |doi=10.1177/1350508410372622|s2cid=145741555 }}
*{{cite journal
  |last1=Reinecke |first1=J. |last2=Manning |first2=S. |last3=Von Hagen |first3=O 
  |ssrn=1970343
  |title=The Emergence of a Standards Market: Multiplicity of Sustainability Standards in the Global Coffee Industry
  |journal=Organization Studies |date=2012 |volume=33 |number=5/6 |pages=789–812 |doi=10.1177/0170840612443629|s2cid=38006629 |url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/86265/1/RA12WP%202012%20OS%20Emergence%20of%20a%20Standards%20Market.pdf }}
*{{cite book
  |last1=Vogt |first1=M. |year=2019 |title=Variance in approach to a sustainable coffee industry in Costa Rica perspectives from within: lessons and insights|publisher=Ubiquity Press |doi=10.5334/bce|isbn=9781911529767 |doi-access=free }} 
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
*[https://www.fairtrade.net/ Fairtrade International's main website]
*[http://www.fsc.org/ FSC International]
*[https://www.isealalliance.org/ ISEAL Alliance initiative on sustainability standards]
*[http://www.standardsmap.org/ Standards Map from the International Trade Center]
*[http://www.coffeehabitat.com/certification-guide/ Referenced guide to major coffee certifications]


{{Social accountability}}

[[Category:Environmental standards]]

{{Sourceattribution|Sustainability standards and certification}}