View source for Earth:Earth science

{{Short description|Fields of natural science related to Earth}}[[File:DirkvdM rocks.jpg|thumb|The rocky side of a mountain creek in Costa Rica]]
'''Earth science''' or '''geoscience''' includes all fields of [[Natural science|natural science]] related to the [[Astronomy:Planet|planet]] [[Astronomy:Earth|Earth]]. This is a branch of [[Science|science]] dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological [[Complexity|complex]] constitutions and [[Biology:Synergy|synergistic]] linkages of Earth's four spheres, namely [[Biology:Biosphere|biosphere]], [[Earth:Hydrosphere|hydrosphere]], [[Astronomy:Atmosphere|atmosphere]], and [[Earth:Geosphere|geosphere]]. Earth science can be considered to be a branch of [[Astronomy:Planetary science|planetary science]], but with a much older history. Earth science encompasses four main branches of study, the [[Earth:Lithosphere|lithosphere]], the [[Earth:Hydrosphere|hydrosphere]], the [[Earth:Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]], and the [[Biology:Biosphere|biosphere]], each of which is further broken down into more specialized fields.

There are both [[Philosophy:Reductionism|reductionist]] and [[Holism|holistic]] approaches to Earth sciences. It is also the study of Earth and its neighbors in space. Some Earth scientists use their knowledge of the planet to locate and develop energy and mineral resources. Others study the impact of human activity on Earth's environment, and design methods to protect the planet. Some use their knowledge about Earth processes such as [[Earth:Volcano|volcano]]es, [[Earth:Earthquake|earthquake]]s, and [[Physics:Tropical cyclone|hurricanes]] to plan communities that will not expose people to these dangerous events.

Earth sciences can include the study of [[Earth:Geology|geology]], the [[Earth:Lithosphere|lithosphere]], and the large-scale structure of Earth's interior, as well as the [[Earth:Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]], [[Earth:Hydrosphere|hydrosphere]], and [[Biology:Biosphere|biosphere]]. Typically, Earth scientists use tools from [[Earth:Geology|geology]], [[Physics:Chronology|chronology]], [[Physics:Physics|physics]], [[Chemistry:Chemistry|chemistry]], [[Earth:Geography|geography]], [[Biology:Biology|biology]], and [[Mathematics|mathematics]] to build a quantitative understanding of how Earth works and evolves. For example, meteorologists study the weather and watch for dangerous storms. Hydrologists examine water and warn of floods. Seismologists study earthquakes and try to understand where they will strike. Geologists study rocks and help to locate useful minerals. Earth scientists often work in the field—perhaps climbing mountains, exploring the seabed, crawling through caves, or wading in swamps. They measure and collect samples (such as rocks or river water), then record their findings on charts and maps.

== Geology ==
{{Main|Earth:Geology}}
[[File:Layers of sedimentary rock in Makhtesh Ramon (50754).jpg|thumb|Layers of [[Earth:Sedimentary rock|sedimentary rock]] in Makhtesh Ramon]]
Geology is the study of the lithosphere, or Earth's surface, including the [[Earth:Crust (geology)|crust]] and [[Earth:Rock (geology)|rocks]]. It includes the physical characteristics and processes that occur in the lithosphere as well as how they are affected by [[Earth:Geothermal energy|geothermal energy]]. It incorporates aspects of chemistry, physics, and biology as elements of geology interact. [[Earth:Historical geology|Historical geology]] is the application of geology to interpret Earth's history and how it changes over time. [[Chemistry:Geochemistry|Geochemistry]] studies the chemical components and processes of the Earth. [[Physics:Geophysics|Geophysics]] studies the physical properties of the lithosphere. [[Biology:Paleontology|Paleontology]] studies fossilized biological material in the lithosphere. [[Earth:Planetary geology|Planetary geology]] studies geology as it pertains to extraterrestrial bodies. [[Physics:Geomorphology|Geomorphology]] studies the origin of landscapes. [[Earth:Structural geology|Structural geology]] studies the deformation of rocks to produce mountains and lowlands. Resource geology studies how energy resources can be obtained from minerals. [[Earth:Environmental geology|Environmental geology]] studies how pollution and contaminates affect soil and rock.{{Sfn|Smith|Pun|2006|pp=14–16}} [[Earth:Mineralogy|Mineralogy]] is the study of minerals. It includes the study of mineral formation, [[Chemistry:Crystal structure|crystal structure]], hazards associated with minerals, and the physical and chemical properties of minerals.{{Sfn|Haldar|2020|p=109}} [[Earth:Petrology|Petrology]] is the study of rocks, including the formation and composition of rocks. [[Earth:Petrography|Petrography]] is a branch of petrology that studies the typology and classification of rocks.{{Sfn|Haldar|2020|p=145|pp=}}

== Earth's interior ==
{{Off topic|date=August 2022}}[[File:Volcano q.jpg|thumb|A volcanic eruption is the release of stored energy from below Earth's surface.<!---originating from radioactive decay and season gravitational sorting in Earth's core and mantle, and residual energy gained during the Earth's formation---><ref>''Encyclopedia of Volcanoes'', Academic Press, London, 2000</ref>]]
{{main|Earth:Structure of Earth}}

[[Earth:Plate tectonics|Plate tectonics]], [[Earth:Mountain|mountain]] ranges, [[Earth:Volcano|volcano]]es, and [[Earth:Earthquake|earthquake]]s are [[Earth:Geology|geological phenomena]] that can be explained in terms of physical and chemical processes in the [[Earth:Earth's crust|Earth's crust]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://okfirst.ocs.ou.edu/train/meteorology/EnergyBudget.html|title=Earth's Energy Budget|work=ou.edu}}</ref> Beneath the Earth's [[Earth:Crust (geology)|crust]] lies the [[Earth:Earth's mantle|mantle]] which is heated by the [[Physics:Radioactive decay|radioactive decay]] of heavy elements. The mantle is not quite solid and consists of [[Biology:Magma|magma]] which is in a state of semi-perpetual convection. This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as [[Earth:Plate tectonics|plate tectonics]].<ref>{{harvnb|Simison|2007|loc=paragraph 7}}</ref><ref name="adams tectonics">{{harvnb|Adams|Lambert|2006|pp= 94–95, 100, 102}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Pun|2006|pp= 13–17, 218, G-6}}</ref><ref name="oldroyd tectonics">{{harvnb|Oldroyd|2006|pp= 101,103,104}}</ref> Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called ''divergent boundaries'', those where it is brought back into the Earth are ''convergent boundaries'' and those where plates slide past each other, but no new lithospheric material is created or destroyed, are referred to as [[Earth:Transform fault|transform]] (or conservative) boundaries<ref name="adams tectonics" /><ref name="oldroyd tectonics" /><ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Pun|2006|p=331}}</ref> Earthquakes result from the movement of the lithospheric plates, and they often occur near convergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into the earth as part of subduction.<ref name="smith subduction">{{harvnb|Smith|Pun|2006|pp=325–26, 329}}</ref>

Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the Earth is resurfaced. As the result of [[Earth:Seafloor spreading|seafloor spreading]], new crust and lithosphere is created by the flow of magma from the [[Earth:Mantle (geology)|mantle]] to the near surface, through fissures, where it cools and solidifies. Through  [[Earth:Subduction|subduction]], oceanic crust and lithosphere returns to the convecting mantle.<ref name="adams tectonics" /><ref name="oldroyd tectonics" /><ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Pun|2006|p=327}}</ref> Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Crust material that is forced into the [[Earth:Asthenosphere|asthenosphere]] melts, and some portion of the melted material becomes light enough to rise to the surface—giving birth to volcanoes.<ref name="adams tectonics" /><ref name="smith subduction" />

== Atmospheric science ==
[[File:Magnetosphere rendition.jpg|thumb|The magnetosphere shields the surface of Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind.<!---It is compressed on the day (Sun) side due to the force of the arriving particles, and extended on the night side.---><br />(''image not to scale.'')]]
Atmospheric science initially developed in the late-19th century as a means to forecast the weather through [[Physics:Meteorology|meteorology]], the study of weather. [[Earth:Atmospheric chemistry|Atmospheric chemistry]] was developed in the 20th century to measure [[Earth:Air pollution|air pollution]] and expanded in the 1970s in response to [[Earth:Acid rain|acid rain]]. [[Earth:Climatology|Climatology]] studies the [[Earth:Climate|climate]] and [[Earth:Climate change|climate change]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wallace |first1=John M. |title=Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey |last2=Hobbs |first2=Peter V. |publisher=Elsevier Science |year=2006 |isbn=9780080499536 |edition=2nd |pages=1–3}}</ref>

The [[Earth:Troposphere|troposphere]], [[Earth:Stratosphere|stratosphere]], [[Earth:Mesosphere|mesosphere]], [[Earth:Thermosphere|thermosphere]], and [[Earth:Exosphere|exosphere]] are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. 75% of the gases in the atmosphere are located within the troposphere, the lowest layer. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0% [[Chemistry:Nitrogen|nitrogen]], 20.9% [[Chemistry:Oxygen|oxygen]], and 0.92% [[Chemistry:Argon|argon]], and small amounts of other gases including CO<sub>2</sub> and water vapor.<ref name="adams atmosphere">{{harvnb|Adams|Lambert|2006|pp=107–08}}</ref> Water vapor and CO<sub>2</sub> allow the Earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through the [[Earth:Greenhouse effect|greenhouse effect]].<ref>{{harvnb|American Heritage|p= 770}}</ref> This allows Earth's surface to be warm enough to have liquid water and support life. In addition to storing heat, the atmosphere also protects living organisms by shielding the Earth's surface from cosmic rays—which are often incorrectly thought to be deflected by the [[Physics:Magnetic field|magnetic field]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Parker|first=Eugene|title=Shielding Space|publisher=Scientific American|date=March 2006 |url=https://engineering.dartmouth.edu/~d76205x/research/Shielding/docs/Parker_06.pdf}}</ref> The magnetic field—created by the internal motions of the core—produces the [[Astronomy:Magnetosphere|magnetosphere]] which protects Earth's atmosphere from the [[Astronomy:Solar wind|solar wind]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|Lambert|2006|pp= 21–22}}</ref> As the Earth is 4.5 billion years old,<ref name="age earth">{{harvnb|Smith|Pun|2006|p=183}}</ref> it would have lost its atmosphere by now if there were no protective magnetosphere.

== Earth's magnetic field ==
{{Off topic|date=August 2022}}
[[File:Wires-antiparallel-and-parallel-with-magnetic-field.svg|thumb|In the image above the first example their anti-parallel currents with cause them to repel. In the second example they are parallel currents which cause attraction.]]thumb|Changing magnetic field through a coil of wire therefore must induce an EMF the coil which in turn causes current to flow.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Introduction to Magnetism and Induced Currents|url=https://www.rpi.edu/dept/phys/ScIT/InformationStorage/faraday/magnetism_a.html|access-date=2021-05-18|website=www.rpi.edu}}</ref>An electromagnet is a magnet that is created by an electric current.<ref>{{harvnb|American Heritage|p= 576}}</ref> The Earth has a solid iron inner core surrounded by a fluid outer core that convects;<ref name="oldroyd core" /> therefore, Earth is an electromagnet. The motion of fluid convection [[Physics:Dynamo theory|sustains]] the Earth's magnetic field.<ref name="oldroyd core">{{harvnb|Oldroyd|2006|p= 160}}</ref><ref name="dynamo">{{cite web|url=http://setiathome.berkeley.edu/~pauld/etc/210BPaper.pdf |title=Dynamo Theory and Earth's Magnetic Field. |author=Demorest, Paul |date=2001-05-21 |access-date=2007-11-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221094040/http://setiathome.berkeley.edu/~pauld/etc/210BPaper.pdf |archive-date=February 21, 2007 }}</ref>

The magnetic field is also very important because some birds and insects use it to navigate over long distances, using the magnetized iron crystals found in their skin. The most important function of Earth's magnetic field is protecting its organisms. High energy protons are deflected along with electrons in the solar wind. If organisms were directly exposed to these particles it would be lethal.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Christensen|first=Norman L.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1007498917|title=The Environment and you|date=2019|others=Lissa Leege, Justin St. Juliana|isbn=978-0-13-464605-3|edition=Third|location=NY, NY|oclc=1007498917}}</ref> For the consistency{{clarify|date=November 2021}} of a magnetic field to remain constant there must be an attractive magnetic field.{{clarify|date=November 2021}} If the motion of a magnetic field changes then every aspect of it does as well.{{clarify|date=November 2021}} It indicates a force that is proportional to the velocity of a moving charge.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hughes|first=Scott|date=10 March 2005|title=Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Physics 8.022 Spring 2004 Lecture 10: Magnetic force; Magnetic fields; Ampere's law|url=https://web.mit.edu/sahughes/www/8.022/lec10.pdf}}</ref>

[[Physics:Magnetic flux density|Magnetic flux density]] is generally measured in [[Tesla (unit)|teslas]]. Another unit sometimes used is the [[Physics:Gauss (unit)|gauss]] (G). 1 G is equivalent to 10<sup>−4</sup> T (or 1 mG = 0.1µT).
=== The Lorentz Force Law ===
The force exerted by a magnetic field on an object can be defined by the Lorentz Law.

<chem>\mathbf F= q(\mathbf E+ \mathbf v\times \mathbf B)</chem>

where
*'''''F''''' is the force
*''q'' is the object's electric charge
*'''''E''''' is the electric field
*'''''v''''' is the object's velocity
*'''''B''''' is the magnetic field strength.

The electromagnetic force holds atoms and molecules together. In fact, at this scale the forces of electric attraction and repulsion of electric charges are so dominant over the other three fundamental forces that they can be considered to be negligible as determiners of atomic and molecular structure.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fundamental Forces|url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Forces/funfor.html#c3|access-date=2021-05-18|website=hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu}}</ref>

The Lorentz Force Law was named after Dutch physicist Hendrik Antoon Lorentz. He was the first to formulate this equation. Lorentz theorized that atoms might consist of charged particles and suggested that the oscillations of these charged particles were the source of light.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1902|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1902/lorentz/biographical/|access-date=2021-05-18|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Hydrology ==
{{Main|Earth:Hydrology}}
[[File:Watercyclesummary.jpg|thumb|Movement of water through the [[Physics:Water cycle|water cycle]]]]
Hydrology is the study of the hydrosphere and the [[Physics:Water cycle|movement of water on Earth]]. It emphasizes the study of how humans use and interact with freshwater supplies. Study of water's movement is closely related to [[Physics:Geomorphology|geomorphology]] and other branches of Earth science. Applied hydrology involves engineering to maintain aquatic environments and distribute water supplies. Subdisciplines of hydrology include [[Physics:Oceanography|oceanography]], [[Earth:Hydrogeology|hydrogeology]], [[Earth:Ecohydrology|ecohydrology]], and [[Earth:Glaciology|glaciology]]. Oceanography is the study of oceans.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Davie |first1=Tim |title=Fundamentals of Hydrology |last2=Quinn |first2=Nevil Wyndham |publisher=Routledge |year=2019 |isbn=9780203798942 |edition=3rd |pages=1–2}}</ref> Hydrogeology is the study of [[Earth:Groundwater|groundwater]]. It includes the mapping of groundwater supplies and the analysis of groundwater contaminants. Applied hydrogeology seeks to prevent contamination of groundwater and [[Earth:Mineral spring|mineral springs]] and make it available as drinking water. The earliest exploitation of groundwater resources dates back to 3000 BC, and hydrogeology as a science was developed by hydrologists beginning in the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hölting |first1=Bernward |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-662-56375-5 |title=Hydrogeology |last2=Coldewey |first2=Wilhelm G. |publisher=Springer |year=2019 |isbn=9783662563755 |edition=8th |pages=1–3 |chapter=Introduction|doi=10.1007/978-3-662-56375-5 }}</ref> Ecohydrology is the study of ecological systems in the hydrosphere. It can be divided into the physical study of aquatic ecosystems and the biological study of aquatic organisms. Ecohydrology includes the effects that organisms and aquatic ecosystems have on one another as well as how these ecoystems are affected by humans.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wood |first1=Paul J. |title=Hydroecology and Ecohydrology: Past, Present and Future |last2=Hannah |first2=David M. |last3=Sadler |first3=Jonathan P. |publisher=Wiley |year=2007 |isbn=9780470010174 |pages=1–6 |chapter=Ecohydrology and Hydroecology: An Introduction}}</ref> Glaciology is the study of the cryosphere, including [[Earth:Glacier|glaciers]] and coverage of the Earth by ice and snow. Concerns of glaciology include access to glacial freshwater, mitigation of glacial hazards, obtaining resources that exist beneath frozen land, and addressing the effects of climate change on the cryosphere.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knight |first=Peter |title=Glaciers |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1999 |isbn=9780748740000 |pages=1}}</ref>

== Ecology ==
{{Main|Earth:Ecology}}
Ecology is the study of the biosphere. This includes the study of nature and of how living things interact with the Earth and one another. It considers how living things use resources such as oxygen, water, and [[Earth:Nutrient|nutrients]] from the Earth to sustain themselves. It also considers how humans and other living creatures cause changes to nature.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ricklefs |first1=Robert E. |title=Ecology |last2=Miller |first2=Gary L. |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=2000 |isbn=9780716728290 |edition=4th |pages=3–4}}</ref>

== Physical geography ==
{{Main|Earth:Physical geography}}
Physical geography is the study of [[Earth system science|Earth's systems]] and how they interact with one another as part of a single self-contained system. It incorporates astronomy, mathematical geography, meteorology, climatology, geology, geomorphology, biology, biogeography, pedology, and soils geography. Physical geography is distinct from [[Social:Human geography|human geography]], which studies the human populations on Earth, though it does include human effects on the environment.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Petersen |first1=James F. |title=Fundamentals of Physical Geography |last2=Sack |first2=Dorothy |last3=Gabler |first3=Robert E. |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2014 |isbn=9781285969718 |pages=2–3}}</ref>

== Methodology ==
[[Methodology|Methodologies]] vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth phenomena (e.g. Antarctica or [[Earth:Hotspot (geology)|hot spot]] island chains).

A foundational idea in Earth science is the notion of [[Philosophy:Uniformitarianism|uniformitarianism]], which states that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily observed." In other words, any geologic processes at work in the present have operated in the same ways throughout geologic time. This enables those who study Earth's history to apply knowledge of how Earth processes operate in the present to gain insight into how the planet has evolved and changed throughout long history.

== Earth's spheres ==
{{Nature timeline}}{{Prose|date=August 2022}}
Earth science generally recognizes four spheres, the [[Earth:Lithosphere|lithosphere]], the [[Earth:Hydrosphere|hydrosphere]], the [[Astronomy:Atmosphere|atmosphere]], and the [[Biology:Biosphere|biosphere]];<ref name="wheeling">[http://www2.cet.edu/ete/hilk4/intro/spheres.html Earth's Spheres] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070831022404/http://www2.cet.edu/ete/hilk4/intro/spheres.html |date=August 31, 2007 }}. ©1997–2000. Wheeling Jesuit University/NASA Classroom of the Future. Retrieved November 11, 2007.</ref> these correspond to [[Earth:Rock (geology)|rocks]], [[Chemistry:Water|water]], air and life. Also included by some are the [[Physics:Cryosphere|cryosphere]] (corresponding to [[Earth:Ice|ice]]) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere and the [[Chemistry:Pedosphere|pedosphere]] (corresponding to [[Chemistry:Soil|soil]]) as an active and intermixed sphere.
The following [[Branches of science|fields of science]] are generally categorized within the Earth sciences:
* [[Earth:Geology|Geology]] describes the [[Earth:Rock (geology)|rocky]] parts of the [[Earth:Earth's crust|Earth's crust]] (or [[Earth:Lithosphere|lithosphere]]) and its historic development. Major subdisciplines are [[Earth:Mineralogy|mineralogy]] and [[Earth:Petrology|petrology]], [[Physics:Geomorphology|geomorphology]], [[Biology:Paleontology|paleontology]], [[Earth:Stratigraphy|stratigraphy]], [[Earth:Structural geology|structural geology]], [[Engineering:Engineering geology|engineering geology]], and [[Earth:Sedimentology|sedimentology]].<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|Lambert|2006|p=20}}</ref><ref name="smith 5">{{harvnb|Smith|Pun|2006|p=5}}</ref>
*[[Earth:Physical geography|Physical geography]] focuses on [[Earth:Geography|geography]] as an Earth science. Physical geography is the study of Earth's seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, and oceans. Physical geography can be divided into several branches or related fields, as follows: [[Physics:Geomorphology|geomorphology]], [[Earth:Biogeography|biogeography]], environmental geography, [[Earth:Palaeogeography|palaeogeography]], [[Earth:Climatology|climatology]], [[Physics:Meteorology|meteorology]], [[Earth:Coastal geography|coastal geography]], [[Earth:Hydrology|hydrology]], [[Earth:Ecology|ecology]], [[Earth:Glaciology|glaciology]].{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} 
*[[Physics:Geophysics|Geophysics]] and [[Geodesy|geodesy]] investigate the [[Earth:Figure of the Earth|shape of the Earth]], its reaction to forces and its [[Physics:Magnetic field|magnetic]] and gravity fields. Geophysicists explore the [[Earth:Inner core|Earth's core]] and [[Earth:Earth's mantle|mantle]] as well as the [[Earth:Plate tectonics|tectonic]] and [[Earth:Seismology|seismic]] activity of the lithosphere.<ref name="smith 5" /><ref>{{cite web |title=WordNet Search – 3.1 |url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=geodesy&sub=Search+WordNet&o2=&o0=1&o7=&o5=&o1=1&o6=&o4=&o3=&h=0 |work=princeton.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Global Positioning Tutorial |url=http://www.oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/geodesy/welcome.html |work=noaa.gov}}</ref> Geophysics is commonly used to supplement the work of [[Geologist|geologist]]s in developing a comprehensive understanding of crustal geology, particularly in mineral and petroleum exploration. Seismologists use [[Earth:Geophysical survey|geophysics]] to understand plate tectonic shifting, as well as predict seismic activity.
* [[Chemistry:Geochemistry|Geochemistry]] is defined as the study of the processes that control the abundance, composition, and distribution of chemical compounds and isotopes in geologic environments. Geochemists use the tools and principles of chemistry to study the composition, structure, processes, and other physical aspects of the Earth. Major subdisciplines are [[Chemistry:Aqueous geochemistry|aqueous geochemistry]], [[Chemistry:Cosmochemistry|cosmochemistry]], [[Chemistry:Isotope geochemistry|isotope geochemistry]] and [[Chemistry:Biogeochemistry|biogeochemistry]].
* [[Earth:Soil science|Soil science]] covers the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject to soil formation processes (or [[Chemistry:Pedosphere|pedosphere]]).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20041024223548/http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/ped/pedosph.htm Elissa Levine, 2001, The Pedosphere As A Hub] broken link?</ref> Major subdivisions in this field of study include [[Earth:Edaphology|edaphology]] and pedology.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gardiner |first=Duane T |title=Lecture 1 Chapter 1 Why Study Soils? |url=http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~doetqp-p/courses/env320/lec1/Lec1.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209052922/http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~doetqp-p/courses/env320/lec1/Lec1.html |archive-date=2018-02-09 |access-date=2019-01-07 |work=ENV320: Soil Science Lecture Notes |publisher=Texas A&M University-Kingsville}}</ref>
* [[Earth:Ecology|Ecology]] covers the interactions between organisms and their environment. This field of study differentiates the study of Earth from the study of other planets in the [[Astronomy:Solar System|Solar System]], Earth being its only planet teeming with life.
* [[Earth:Hydrology|Hydrology]], [[Physics:Oceanography|oceanography]] and [[Earth:Limnology|limnology]] are studies which focus on the movement, distribution, and quality of the water and involves all the components of the hydrologic cycle on the Earth and its atmosphere (or [[Earth:Hydrosphere|hydrosphere]]). "Sub-disciplines of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface water hydrology, hydrogeology, watershed science, forest hydrology, and water chemistry."<ref>{{cite web |last=Craig |first=Kendall |title=Hydrology of the Watershed |url=http://www.flatheadwatershed.org/watershed/hydrology.shtml}}</ref>
* [[Earth:Glaciology|Glaciology]] covers the [[Earth:Ice|icy]] parts of the Earth (or [[Physics:Cryosphere|cryosphere]]).
* [[Physics:Atmospheric sciences|Atmospheric sciences]] cover the [[Physics:Gas|gas]]eous parts of the Earth (or atmosphere) between the surface and the [[Earth:Exosphere|exosphere]] (about 1000&nbsp;km). Major subdisciplines include meteorology, climatology, [[Earth:Atmospheric chemistry|atmospheric chemistry]], and [[Physics:Atmospheric physics|atmospheric physics]].

=== Earth science breakup ===
<!--List of academic disciplines links here-->
{{main|Earth:Outline of Earth sciences}}
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}

; [[Astronomy:Atmosphere|Atmosphere]] 
* [[Earth:Atmospheric chemistry|Atmospheric chemistry]]
* [[Earth:Geography|Geography]]
** [[Earth:Climatology|Climatology]]
** [[Physics:Meteorology|Meteorology]]
* [[Earth:Hydrometeorology|Hydrometeorology]]
* [[Earth:Paleoclimatology|Paleoclimatology]]

; [[Biology:Biosphere|Biosphere]] 
* [[Chemistry:Biogeochemistry|Biogeochemistry]]
* [[Earth:Biogeography|Biogeography]]
* [[Earth:Ecology|Ecology]]
** [[Earth:Landscape ecology|Landscape ecology]]
* [[Earth:Geoarchaeology|Geoarchaeology]]
* [[Biology:Geomicrobiology|Geomicrobiology]]
* [[Biology:Paleontology|Paleontology]]
** [[Earth:Palynology|Palynology]]
** [[Biology:Micropaleontology|Micropaleontology]]

; [[Earth:Hydrosphere|Hydrosphere]] 
* [[Earth:Hydrology|Hydrology]]
** [[Earth:Hydrogeology|Hydrogeology]]
* [[Earth:Limnology|Limnology]] (freshwater science)
* [[Physics:Oceanography|Oceanography]] (marine science)
** [[Chemistry:Chemical oceanography|Chemical oceanography]]
** [[Earth:Physical oceanography|Physical oceanography]]
** [[Biology:Marine biology|Biological oceanography]] (marine biology)
** [[Earth:Marine geology|Geological oceanography]] (marine geology)
*** [[Earth:Paleoceanography|Paleoceanography]]

; [[Earth:Lithosphere|Lithosphere]] ([[Earth:Geosphere|geosphere]]) 
* [[Earth:Geology|Geology]]
** [[Earth:Economic geology|Economic geology]]
** [[Engineering:Engineering geology|Engineering geology]]
** [[Earth:Environmental geology|Environmental geology]]
** [[Earth:Forensic geology|Forensic geology]]
** [[Earth:Historical geology|Historical geology]]
*** [[Earth:Quaternary geology|Quaternary geology]]
** [[Earth:Planetary geology|Planetary geology]] and planetary geography
** [[Earth:Sedimentology|Sedimentology]]
** [[Earth:Stratigraphy|Stratigraphy]]
** [[Earth:Structural geology|Structural geology]]
* [[Earth:Geography|Geography]]
** [[Social:Human geography|Human geography]]
** [[Earth:Physical geography|Physical geography]]
* [[Chemistry:Geochemistry|Geochemistry]]
* [[Physics:Geomorphology|Geomorphology]]
* [[Physics:Geophysics|Geophysics]]
** [[Physics:Geochronology|Geochronology]]
** [[Earth:Geodynamics|Geodynamics]] (see also [[Earth:Tectonics|Tectonics]])
** [[Physics:Geomagnetism|Geomagnetism]]
** [[Physics:Gravimetry|Gravimetry]] (also part of [[Geodesy]])
** [[Earth:Seismology|Seismology]]
* [[Earth:Glaciology|Glaciology]]
* [[Earth:Hydrogeology|Hydrogeology]]
* [[Earth:Mineralogy|Mineralogy]]
** [[Physics:Crystallography|Crystallography]]
** [[Earth:Gemology|Gemology]]
* [[Earth:Petrology|Petrology]]
** [[Physics:Petrophysics|Petrophysics]]
* [[Earth:Speleology|Speleology]]
* [[Earth:Volcanology|Volcanology]]

; [[Chemistry:Pedosphere|Pedosphere]] 
* [[Earth:Geography|Geography]]
* [[Earth:Soil science|Soil science]]
** [[Earth:Edaphology|Edaphology]]
** [[Earth:Pedology|Pedology]]

; Systems 
* [[Earth system science]]
* [[Environmental science]]
* [[Earth:Geography|Geography]]
** [[Social:Human geography|Human geography]]
** [[Earth:Physical geography|Physical geography]]
* [[Astronomy:Gaia hypothesis|Gaia hypothesis]]
* [[Earth:Systems ecology|Systems ecology]]
* Systems geology

; Others 
* [[Earth:Geography|Geography]]
** [[Earth:Cartography|Cartography]]
** [[Geoinformatics]] (GIScience)
** [[Earth:Geostatistics|Geostatistics]]
** [[Geodesy]] and [[Engineering:Surveying|Surveying]]
** Remote Sensing
* [[Physics:Nanogeoscience|Nanogeoscience]]
{{div col end}}

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=24em}}
* [[Organization:American Geosciences Institute|American Geosciences Institute]]
* [[Software:Earth sciences graphics software|Earth sciences graphics software]]
* Glossary of geology terms
* [[Biography:List of Earth scientists|List of Earth scientists]]
* [[Earth:List of geoscience organizations|List of geoscience organizations]]
* [[Earth:List of unsolved problems in geoscience|List of unsolved problems in geoscience]]
* ''Making North America'' (2015 PBS film)
* [[Organization:National Association of Geoscience Teachers|National Association of Geoscience Teachers]]
* Solid-earth science
* [[Astronomy:Science tourism|Science tourism]]
* [[Earth:Structure of the Earth|Structure of the Earth]]
{{div col end}}
{{clear}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
|title=Earth Science: An illustrated guide to science
|first1=Simon
|last1=Adams
|first2=David
|last2=Lambert
|publisher=Chelsea House
|location=New York, NY
|year=2006
|isbn=978-0-8160-6164-8
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Haldar
|first=S. K.
|title=Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology
|publisher=Elsevier Science
|year=2020
|isbn=9780323851367
|edition=2nd}}
* {{cite book
|title=American Heritage dictionary of the English language
|edition=4th
|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company
|location=Boston, MA
|isbn=978-0-395-82517-4
|author=Joseph P. Pickett (executive editor)
|year=1992
|ref={{harvid|American Heritage}}
|url-access=registration
|url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a1o7
}}
* {{cite web
|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/geology/tecmech.html
|title=The mechanism behind plate tectonics
|date=2007-02-05
|access-date=2007-11-17
|author=Simison, W. Brian
|ref={{harvid|Simison|2007}}
}}
* {{cite book
|title=How Does the Earth Work? Physical Geology ''and the'' Process of Science
|first1=Gary A.
|last1=Smith
|first2=Aurora
|last2=Pun
|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall
|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ
|year=2006
|isbn=978-0-13-034129-7
}}
* {{cite book
|title=Earth Cycles: A historical perspective
|first=David
|last=Oldroyd
|publisher=Greenwood Press
|location=Westport, CT
|year=2006
|isbn=978-0-313-33229-6
}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* Allaby M., 2008. Dictionary of Earth Sciences, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-921194-4}}
* Korvin G., 1998. Fractal Models in the Earth Sciences, Elsvier, {{ISBN|978-0-444-88907-2}}
* {{cite web
|url=http://okfirst.mesonet.org/train/meteorology/EnergyBudget.html
|title=Earth's Energy Budget
|date=1996–2004
|access-date=2007-11-17
|publisher=Oklahoma Climatological Survey
}}
* {{cite web
|url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=Earth+science&sub=Search+WordNet&o2=&o0=1&o7=&o5=&o1=1&o6=&o4=&o3=&h=0
|title=WordNet Search 3.0
|access-date=2007-11-10
|work=WordNet a lexical database for the English language
|publisher=Princeton University/Cognitive Science Laboratory |location= Princeton, NJ
|first=George A.
|last=Miller
|author2=Christiane Fellbaum |author3=and Randee Tengi |author4=and Pamela Wakefield |author5=and Rajesh Poddar |author6=and Helen Langone |author7=Benjamin Haskell|year=2006
}}
* {{cite web
|url=http://www.oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/geodesy/welcome.html
|title=NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Geodesy
|date=2005-03-08
|access-date=2007-11-17
|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
}}
* {{cite book
|title=Earth Science: Decade by Decade
|first=Christina
|last=Reed
|publisher=Facts on File
|location=New York, NY
|year=2008
|isbn=978-0-8160-5533-3
}}
* Tarbuck E. J., Lutgens F. K., and Tasa D., 2002. Earth Science, Prentice Hall, {{ISBN|978-0-13-035390-0}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* [http://epod.usra.edu/ Earth Science Picture of the Day], a service of [[Organization:Universities Space Research Association|Universities Space Research Association]], sponsored by [[Organization:Goddard Space Flight Center|NASA Goddard Space Flight Center]].
* [http://tierra.rediris.es/Geoethics_Planetary_Protection/ Geoethics in Planetary and Space Exploration].
*[https://geology.buzz/earth-science/ Geology Buzz: Earth Science]

{{Earth science}}
{{Natural science}}
{{Earth}}
{{Nature}}

[[Category:Earth sciences| ]]
[[Category:Earth|*]]
[[Category:Physical sciences]]
[[Category:Planetary science]]

{{Sourceattribution|Earth science}}