View source for Biology:Weddell seal

{{Short description|Species of mammal}}
{{Speciesbox 
| name = Weddell seal
| image = Mikkelsen Harbour-2016-Trinity Island (D'Hainaut Island)–Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii) 03.jpg
| image_caption =At the D'Hainaut Island, Mikkelsen Harbour, Trinity Island
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Hückstädt, L. |date=2015 |title=''Leptonychotes weddellii'' |volume=2015 |page=e.T11696A45226713 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T11696A45226713.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Leptonychotes
| parent_authority = Gill, 1872
| species = weddellii
| authority = (Lesson, 1826)
| range_map= WeddellRange 1.PNG
| range_map_caption = Weddell seal range
{{legend |#cccccc|Water}}
{{legend |#ffffff|Ice}}
{{legend |#ff9999|Range}}
}}

The '''Weddell seal'''<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Wozencraft | pages = | id=14001044}}</ref> ('''''Leptonychotes weddellii''''') is a relatively large and abundant [[Biology:Earless seal|true seal]] with a circumpolar distribution surrounding [[Earth:Antarctica|Antarctica]]. The Weddell seal was discovered and named in the 1820s during expeditions led by [[History:United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] [[Biology:Seal hunting|sealing]] captain James Weddell to the area of the [[Earth:Southern Ocean|Southern Ocean]] now known as the Weddell Sea.<ref name="Seals and sea lions">{{cite book |vauthors= Todd B |date=2002 |title= Seals and sea lions|location=New Zealand |publisher=Reed Publishing Ltd. }}</ref> The [[Biology:Life history theory|life history]] of this species is well documented since it occupies [[Earth:Fast ice|fast ice]] environments close to the [[Earth:Antarctica|Antarctic continent]] and often adjacent to Antarctic bases.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Siniff D |year=1991 |title=An overview of the ecology of Antarctic seals |journal=American Zoologist |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=143–149  |doi=10.1093/icb/31.1.143 |doi-access=free }}</ref>  It is the only species in the genus '''''Leptonychotes'''''.

==Description==
[[File:Weddell Seal skull 1844.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Skull]]
Weddell seals measure about {{cvt|2.5|–|3.5|m}} long and weigh {{cvt|400|–|600|kg}}.<ref name="Animal">{{cite book |last=Kindersley |first= Dorling |year=2001| edition= 2005 |title=Animal |location=New York City |publisher=DK Publishing |isbn=978-0-7894-7764-4}}</ref><ref name= below>{{cite news| title= The Beauty Below The Ice| first= Laurent| last= Ballesta| work= National Geographic| publisher= [[Organization:National Geographic Society|National Geographic Society]]| url= https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/proof/2017/06/under-antarctica-behind-scenes-photo/| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170627003402/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/proof/2017/06/under-antarctica-behind-scenes-photo/| url-status= dead| archive-date= June 27, 2017| via= nationalgeographic.com| date= July 2017| volume= 232 | number= 1| page= 67 | access-date= November 17, 2017}}</ref> They are amongst the largest seals, with a rather bulky body and short fore flippers relative to their body [[Physics:Length|length]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hückstädt LA |year=2018 |title=Weddell Seal: Leptonychotes weddellii |journal=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals  |pages=1048–1051  |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-804327-1.00267-3 }}</ref> Males weigh less than females, usually about {{cvt|500|kg}} or less. Male and female Weddell seals are generally about the same length, though females can be slightly larger.<ref name= Westerskov1997>{{cite book| last= Westerskov |first= Kim |year= 1997| title= Seals of the blizzard: The Weddell Seals of Antarctica| place= Australia| publisher= Omnibus Books | isbn= 9781862912212}}</ref> However, the male seal tends to have a thicker [[Medicine:Neck|neck]] and a broader head and muzzle than the female.<ref name="A. and C. Black">{{cite book |vauthors= Shirihai H |date=2006 |title=Whales, dolphins, and seals: A field guide to the marine mammals of the world |publisher= A. and C. Black.}}</ref> A molecular genetic-based technique has been established to confirm the sex of individuals in the laboratory.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Curtis C, Stewart BS, Karl SA  |year=2007 |title=Sexing pinnipeds with ZFX and ZFY loci |journal=Journal of Heredity |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=286–290  |doi=10.1093/jhered/esm023 |pmid=17548861 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The Weddell seal face has been compared to that of a cat due to a short mouth line and similarities in the structure of the [[Medicine:Nose|nose]] and [[Biology:Whiskers|whiskers]].<ref name="A. and C. Black"/>

The Weddell seal grows a thin [[Biology:Fur|fur]] coat around its whole body except for small areas around the flippers. The colour and pattern of the coat vary, often fading to a duller colour as the seal ages.<ref name=Westerskov1997/> This coat moults around the beginning of summer.<ref name="A. and C. Black"/> Adults show a counter-shaded colouration that varies from bluish-black to dark grey dorsally and to light grey/silver ventrally. Coats may change to shades of brown before the annual moult.<ref name="A. and C. Black"/> Adult males usually bear scars, most of them around the genital region. Weddell seal pups are born with a lanugo of similar [[Biology:Coloration evidence for natural selection|colouration]] and they [[Biology:Moulting|moult]] after 3–4 weeks; later, they turn a darker colour similar to that of adults. The pups are around half the length of their mother at [[Biology:Birth|birth]] and [[Physics:Weight|weigh]] {{cvt|25|–|30|kg}}. They gain around {{cvt|2|kg}} a day, and by 6–7 weeks old they can weigh around {{cvt|100|kg}}.<ref name=Westerskov1997/>

==Behaviour==
===Movements===
[[File:Weddell seal.jpg|right|thumb|A Weddell seal at a breathing hole]]
Weddell seals are commonly found on [[Earth:Fast ice|fast ice]], or ice fastened to land, and gather in small groups around cracks and holes within the [[Earth:Ice|ice]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Smith MS |year=1965 |title=Seasonal movements of the Weddell seal in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica |journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=464–470  |doi=10.2307/3798043 |jstor=3798043 }}</ref> In the winter, they stay in the water to avoid [[Earth:Blizzard|blizzard]]s, with only their heads poking through breathing holes in the ice.<ref name=Westerskov1997/> These seals are often observed lying on their sides when on land. Weddell seals are non-migratory phocids that move regionally to follow the distribution of breathing holes and exit cracks within the ice changes between seasons.<ref name="Ecology of the Weddell seal in McMu">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stirling I |year=1969 |title=Ecology of the Weddell seal in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica |journal= Ecology |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=573–586  |doi=10.2307/1936247 |jstor=1936247 }}</ref> The species is primarily restricted to Antarctic waters: physical factors, such as [[Earth:Glacial landform|glacial]] movement and tidal action, may increase fluctuations in distributions.

===Foraging===
Weddell seals dive to forage for food, maintain breathing holes in fast ice, and explore to find more ice holes.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Davis RW, Fuiman LA, Williams TM, Horning M, Hagey W |year=2003 |title=Classification of Weddell seal dives based on 3 dimensional movements and video-recorded observations |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=264 |pages=109–122 |doi=10.3354/meps264109 |bibcode=2003MEPS..264..109D |doi-access=free }}</ref> They have been observed to dive as deep as 600 m for up to an hour.<ref name="Ecology of the Weddell seal in McMu"/> These seals exhibit a diel dive pattern, diving deeper and longer during the day than at night.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kooyman GL |year=1975 |title=A comparison between day and night diving in the Weddell seal |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=563–574  |doi=10.2307/1379469 |jstor=1379469 }}</ref> After dropping away from a [[Physics:Breathing|breathing]] hole in the ice, the seals become negatively buoyant in the first 30 to 50 m, allowing them to dive with little effort.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Mitani Y, Watanabe Y, Sato K, Cameron MF, Naito Y |year=2004 |title=3D diving behavior of Weddell seals with respect to prey accessibility and abundance |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=281 |pages=563–574  |doi=10.3354/meps281275 |bibcode=2004MEPS..281..275M |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Weddell seals are [[Biology:Apex predator|top predators]] in the Antarctic. They eat an array of [[Biology:Fish|fish]], bottom-feeding prawns, [[Biology:Cephalopod|cephalopod]]s and [[Biology:Crustacean|crustacean]]s.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Riedman M |date=1990 |title=The pinnipeds: seals, sea lions, and walruses |location=USA |publisher= University of California Press}}</ref> A [[Medicine:Sedentary lifestyle|sedentary]] adult eats around 10&nbsp;kg (22&nbsp;lb) a day, while an active adult eats over 50&nbsp;kg (110&nbsp;lb) a day.<ref name=Westerskov1997/> [[Biology:Antarctic toothfish|Antarctic cod]] and [[Biology:Antarctic silverfish|silverfish]] constitute the majority of their diet. Cephalopods are common [[Earth:Predation|prey]], and crustacean remains are sometimes found in Weddell seal scat, but at much lower rates than other prey species. They are opportunistic feeders that hunt in different parts of the water column depending on prey availability. Weddell seals hunt in both [[Earth:Pelagic zone|pelagic]] and benthic-demersal [[Earth:Habitat|habitat]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Daneri GA, Negri A, Coria NR, Negrete J, Libertelli MM, Corbalán A  |year=2018 |title=Fish prey of Weddell seals, Leptonychotes weddellii, at Hope Bay, Antarctic Peninsula, during the late summer |journal=Polar Biology |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=1027–1031  |doi=10.1007/s00300-018-2255-z |s2cid=29658268 |url=http://sedici.unlp.edu.ar/handle/10915/134062 }}</ref>

Although seabirds are not usually part of their diet, there have been several sightings of them chasing and killing [[Biology:Penguin|penguin]]s in the wild. Other Antarctic [[Biology:Earless seal|phocids]] are known to be seabird predators, resulting in implications that penguin hunting is a learned behaviour. There are recordings of four different penguin species being attacked by Weddell seals: a [[Biology:Gentoo penguin|gentoo penguin]], an [[Biology:Emperor penguin|emperor penguin]], an [[Biology:Adélie penguin|Adélie penguin]], and a [[Biology:Chinstrap penguin|chinstrap penguin]]. It has not been confirmed, however, if the penguins were consumed after being killed.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bombosch A, Solovyev B  |year=2017 |title=Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii) killing gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis papua) at Neko Harbour, Antarctic Peninsula |journal= Polar Biology|volume=40 |issue=9 |pages=1899–1902  |doi=10.1007/s00300-016-2070-3 |s2cid=34761946 }}</ref> Scientists believe Weddell seals rely mainly on eyesight to hunt for food when there is light. However, during the Antarctic winter darkness, when there is no [[Physics:Light|light]] under the ice where the seals forage, they rely on other senses, primarily the sense of touch from their [[Biology:Whiskers|vibrissae]] or whiskers, which are not just hairs, but very complicated sense organs with more than 500 [[Biology:Nerve|nerve]] endings that attach to the animal's [[Biology:Snout|snout]]. The hairs allow the seals to detect the wake of swimming fish and use that to capture prey.<ref name="Rejcek">{{cite news |url=http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/science/contenthandler.cfm?id=2248 |publisher=The Antarctic Sun |title=Scientists track seal predation behavior through the dark of Antarctica |author=Peter Rejcek |date=August 27, 2010 |access-date=May 30, 2012}}</ref>

Weddell seals have no natural predators when on fast ice. At sea or on pack ice, they are prey for [[Biology:Killer whale|killer whale]]s and [[Biology:Leopard seal|leopard seal]]s, which prey primarily on juveniles and pups.<ref name=Westerskov1997/>

===Breeding===
[[File:Bébé_Phoque_de_Weddell_-_Baby_Weddell_Seal.jpg|left|thumb|Baby Weddell seal, [[Place:Adélie Land|Adélie Land]]]]
Weddell seals return to fast ice colonies during the spring for [[Biology:Birth|birth]]ing and [[Biology:Breeding in the wild|breeding]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schreer JF, Testa JW  |year=1996 |title=Classification of Weddell seal diving behavior |journal=Mammal Science |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=227–250  |doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.1996.tb00573.x |s2cid=84736733 }}</ref> Weddell seal populations will often return to the same breeding sites over consecutive breeding seasons.<ref name="New data on Weddell seal Leptonych">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zappes IA, Fabiani A, Sbordoni V, Rakaj A, Palozzi R, Allegrucci G  |year=2017 |title=New data on Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii) colonies: A genetic analysis of a top predator from the Ross Sea, Antarctica |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=12 |issue=8|pages=e0182922 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0182922 |pmid=28796829 |pmc=5552091 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1282922Z |doi-access=free }}</ref> Depending on the latitude it inhabits, this marine mammal gives birth from early September through November, with those living at lower latitudes giving birth earlier.<ref name="Ecology of the Weddell seal in McMu"/> Weddell seals usually give birth to one pup per year,<ref name="Ecology of the Weddell seal in McMu"/> however the Weddell seal is one of the only species of seals that can give birth to [[Biology:Twin|twin]] pups.<ref name="Seals and sea lions"/> Birthing of the pup takes only one to four minutes. Newborn pups weigh about 25–30&nbsp;kg and grow to two times their weight within their first week of life.<ref name="Ecology of the Weddell seal in McMu"/> The pups take their first swim around one to two weeks of age.<ref name="Ecology of the Weddell seal in McMu"/>  During the first two weeks, mother Weddell seals distinguish their pups through [[Biology:Olfaction|olfactory]] smells, and specialised vocalisations, and stay in the same spatial area.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Opzeeland IC, Parijs SM, Frickenhaus S, Kreiss CM, Boebel O |year=2012 |title=Individual variation in pup vocalizations and absence of behavioral signs of maternal vocal recognition in Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) |journal=Marine Mammal Science|volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=158–172  |doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2011.00505.x |s2cid=16621622 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1320&context=usdeptcommercepub }}</ref> After six to seven weeks, pups are weaned and begin to hunt independently.<ref name=Westerskov1997/>

[[File:Antarctic,Weddell seal-puppy (js) 44.jpg|thumb|right|Weddell seal pup with its grey natal coat, [[Earth:Deception Island|Deception Island]]]]
Weddell seals show moderate [[Biology:Polygyny in animals|polygyny]] and [[Biology:Genetics|genetic]] analyses of [[Biology:Mating|mating]] success have suggested how factors such as [[Physics:Size|size]], diving ability, and site-specific experience enhance success in male Weddell seals.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Harcourt RG, Kingston JJ, Cameron MF, Waas JR, Hindell MA |year=2007 |title=Paternity analysis shows experience, not age, enhances mating success in an aquatically mating pinniped, the Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii) |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=643–652  |doi=10.1007/s00265-006-0294-x |s2cid=35469722 }}</ref> Additionally, fast ice breeding grounds cause females to cluster in large aggregations, making it easier for males to control their [[Biology:Harem (zoology)|harem]].<ref name="New data on Weddell seal Leptonych"/> The mating season occurs during austral spring between late November and December after pups are weaned and females begin ovulating.<ref name="Ecology of the Weddell seal in McMu"/> During the mating season, Weddell seals make noises loud enough to be felt through the ice.<ref name="Seals and sea lions"/> Males defend underwater territories during the breeding season and have been observed to fight.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Thomas JA, DeMaster DP  |year=1983 |title=Diel haul-out patterns of Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddelli) females and their pups |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=61 |issue=9 |pages=2084–2086  |doi=10.1139/z83-273 }}</ref> [[Biology:Copulation (zoology)|Copulation]] has only been observed to occur underwater, where the female submits to the male as he approaches her dorsal side. The female is often bitten on the neck by her partner if she tries to escape or terminate copulation.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cline DR, Siniff DB, Erickson AW |year=1971  |title=Underwater copulation of the Weddell seal|journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=216–218  |doi=10.2307/1378453 |jstor=1378453 |pmid=5101897 }}</ref> The seals are normally around six to eight years old when they first breed, but this can be much earlier for some females.<ref name="A. and C. Black"/> Weddell seals undergo [[Biology:Embryonic diapause|delayed implantation]]. The [[Biology:Embryo|embryo]] is not [[Biology:Implantation (embryology)|implanted]] into the uterus until the beginning of austral summer, between mid-January and mid-February, allowing for birth under more favourable environmental conditions.<ref name="Ecology of the Weddell seal in McMu"/> Juvenile Weddell seals (0–2 years old) have a high [[Mortality rate|mortality]] probability, whereas no differences can be found between the mortality rate of animals older than 2 years and that of adults (Hastings et al., 1999). The maximum lifespan of the species is estimated at least 25 years.

Newborn Weddell seals have different [[Physics:Thermoregulation|thermoregulatory]] strategies from other species of seals. Weddell seal pups are not born with brown fat, which is used in other seal species for thermoregulation.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Elsner |first=R. W. |title=Adaptations in Antarctic Ecosystems |last2=Hammond |first2=D. D. |last3=Denison |first3=D. M. |year=1977 |isbn=9780872010000 |pages=531-540 |chapter=Temperature regulation in the newborn Weddell seal, Leptonychotes weddelli |oclc=3813893}}</ref> Instead, they rely heavily on lanugo, a fine layer of hair on the surface of their skin, to keep warm.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Pearson |first=Linnea E. |last2=Liwanag |first2=Heather E. M. |last3=Hammill |first3=Mike O. |last4=Burns |first4=Jennifer M. |date=2014-12-01 |title=To each its own: Thermoregulatory strategy varies among neonatal polar phocids |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S109564331400172X |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology |volume=178 |pages=59–67 |doi=10.1016/j.cbpa.2014.08.006 |issn=1095-6433}}</ref> Studies also revealed high levels of [[Biology:Enzyme|enzyme]] activity in the muscles of newborn Weddell seals, suggesting that a primary thermoregulatory strategy of these seals includes muscle thermogenesis, or shivering.<ref name=":1" /> The activity of metabolic enzymes including [[Biology:Citrate synthase|citrate synthase]], ß-hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase, and [[Biology:Cytochrome c oxidase|cytochrome c oxidase]] were measured and determined to be significantly active in newborn Weddell seals' longissimus dorsi, a large and major swimming muscle.<ref name=":1" /> Research has also suggested that pups have high [[Biology:Mitochondrion|mitochondrial]] densities in the muscle, which may serve a thermogenic role.<ref name=":0" />

===Vocalisation===
[[File:Phoque weddell.ogv|thumb|right|Video of a reclining Weddell seal on pack ice in [[Place:Adélie Land|Adélie Land]]]] 
Male and female Weddell seals communicate through a variety of sounds, specifically, males sometimes use “trills” to communicate. Weddell seals are also able to communicate with each other through different mediums. Weddell seals on ice can hear the calls of Weddell seals in the water as long as the noise level on land is low and they are nearby of one another. Sound waves can be transmitted either through the ice itself or from water to breathing holes where female Weddell seals are usually breeding.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Terhune|first=John M.|date=2017-04-13|title=Through-ice communication by Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) is possible|journal=Polar Biology|volume=40|issue=10|pages=2133–2136|doi=10.1007/s00300-017-2124-1|s2cid=23069267|issn=0722-4060}}</ref> There have been recordings of Weddell seal vocalisations that are described as songs. Their songs consist of repetitive sequences of the same vocal elements, and they only vary slightly over time. Individual Weddell seals can each produce their unique song, but singing behaviour is not common when observed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Green|first1=K.|last2=Burton|first2=H. R.|date=January 1988|title=Do Weddell seals sing?|journal=Polar Biology|volume=8|issue=3|pages=165–166|doi=10.1007/bf00443448|s2cid=46256980|issn=0722-4060}}</ref> Vocalisations are also important in mother-pup Weddell seal interactions. Mother Weddell seals use vocalisations to call their pups from further distances when smell can no longer be used efficiently (Opzeeland et al., 2011). Pups also use higher, more urgent vocalisations when hungry to alert their mothers to feed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Collins|first1=Kym T.|last2=McGreevy|first2=Paul D.|last3=Wheatley|first3=Kathryn E.|last4=Harcourt|first4=Robert G.|date=July 2011|title=The influence of behavioural context on Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii) airborne mother-pup vocalisation|journal=Behavioural Processes|volume=87|issue=3|pages=286–290|doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2011.06.005|pmid=21718762|s2cid=32281684|issn=0376-6357}}</ref> Wedell seals commonly produce ultrasonic vocalizations. However, the functional significance of these high-frequency sounds is yet unknown.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cziko |first1=Paul A. |last2=Munger |first2=Lisa M. |last3=Santos |first3=Nicholas R. |last4=Terhune |first4=John M. |date=2020-12-01 |title=Weddell seals produce ultrasonic vocalizations |url=https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0002867 |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |volume=148 |issue=6 |pages=3784–3796 |doi=10.1121/10.0002867 |pmid=33379885 |bibcode=2020ASAJ..148.3784C |s2cid=229930685 |issn=0001-4966|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Taxonomy== 
Rice<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Rice DW |date=1998 |title=Marine Mammals of the World: Systematics and Distribution |location= Lawrence, Kansas|publisher= Society for Marine Mammalogy | volume= 4 }}</ref> noted that the scientific name was misspelt in the past as ''L. weddelli'' and this [[Biology:Synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]] is no longer accepted, although it is still found commonly in the scientific literature before 1988.

Weddell seals can be confused with other two phocids that share the same range: Ross seal (''Ommatophoca rossii'') and [[Biology:Crabeater seal|crabeater seal]] (''Lobodon carcinophagus'').

==Population status== 
[[File:Weddell Seal (js)1.jpg|thumb|right|At Neko Harbour, Antarctica]]
Weddell seals are the second most abundant species of Antarctic phocid, after the crabeater seal.

The most recent estimate suggests a population of about 202,000 female seals, based on high-resolution satellite images from November 2011 that cover the full habitat range of the species. This number includes females only, as males are mostly underwater guarding their territories in November. There are likely to be fewer males than females, as the ratio skews towards females with increasing age.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=LaRue M, Salas L, Nur N, Ainley D, Stammerjohn S, Pennycook J, Dozier M, Saints J, Stamatiou K, Barrington L, Rotella J |date=September 24, 2021 |title=Insights from the first global population estimate of Weddell seals in Antarctica |journal=Science Advances |volume=7 |issue=39 |pages=eabh3674 | pmid=34559555 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abh3674 |pmc=8462891 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.3674L }}</ref>

Previous estimates, with lower geographic coverage and thus relying more heavily on extrapolations, tended to be much higher, reporting numbers in the range of 800,000 or so.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Southwell C, Bengston J, Bester M, Blix AS, Bornemann H, Boveng P, Plötz J |year=2012 |title=A review of data on abundance, trends in abundance, habitat use and diet of ice-breeding seals in the Southern Ocean |journal=CCAMLR Science |volume=19 |pages=49–74}}</ref>

Because of the widespread distribution of Weddell seals, population assessments are difficult and expensive to conduct, and therefore infrequently undertaken. However, thanks to the availability of higher-resolution satellite imagery and crowdsourced data, future counts may be simplified with automated image recognition.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cse.umn.edu/college/news/researchers-and-citizen-scientists-complete-first-ever-weddell-seal-count |title=Researchers and citizen scientists complete first-ever Weddell seal count |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=September 24, 2021 |website=University of Minnesota College of Science and Engineering}}</ref>

==Threats== 
During the early periods of Antarctic [[Exploration|exploration]], Weddell seals suffered dramatic declines as they were hunted for food and oil. Populations have since recovered after the elimination of commercial [[Biology:Seal hunting|sealing]] in the 1980s.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />

However, the effects of global [[Earth:Climate change|climate change]] on Antarctic seals are still to be fully determined. Research estimates seal populations may decline as the availability of their habitat is extremely temperature sensitive thus making them potentially [[Biology:Vulnerable species|vulnerable]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Evans, PG, Pierce GJ, Panigada S |year=2010 |title= Climate change and marine mammals|journal=Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom |volume=90 |issue=8 |pages=1483–1487  |doi=10.1017/S0025315410001815 |bibcode=2010JMBUK..90.1483E |doi-access=free }}</ref> Climate changes affecting the duration and the extent of the sea ice and nutrient availability could potentially reduce pups’ survival and may have important implications for population [[Growth rate (group theory)|growth rates]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Garrott RA, Rotella JJ, Siniff DB, Parkinson CL, Stauffer GE |year= 2012|title=Environmental variation and cohort effects in an Antarctic predator |journal= Oikos|volume= 121|issue= 7|pages= 1027–1040 |doi= 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2011.19673.x|hdl= 2060/20110022991|s2cid= 42629887|hdl-access= free}}</ref> The fact that some populations breed on land (e.g., in South Georgia), could demonstrate the ability of the species to colonise different environments, although the extent of such [[Physics:Plasticity|plasticity]] is uncertain.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />

In the past, the establishment of Antarctic research bases has caused a measure of disturbance to these seals. In January 1998 the Environmental Protection Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty was ratified, implementing environmental measures such as the banning of mining and [[Engineering:Oil well|oil drilling]] in Antarctica for at least 50 years, along with the banning of refuse disposal and the use of [[Biology:Pesticide|pesticide]]s in the region.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> However, the disturbance effects of the increasing seasonal tourism in the Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic on Weddell seal behaviour, distribution, and foraging are still unknown.

Currently, there are no reports of significant fisheries interactions. Although, the development of new fisheries in Antarctic waters, particularly one targeting the [[Biology:Antarctic toothfish|Antarctic toothfish]], could have an impact on Weddell seal nutrition, and potential operational interactions should be considered in the management plans.

==Conservation status== 
The Weddell seal is protected by the Antarctic Treaty and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS). It is classified as being of "least concern" by the IUCN.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /> This species is not listed by [[Biology:CITES|CITES]].

== See also==
*Warren Zapol

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://cetus.ucsd.edu/voicesinthesea_org/species/pinnipeds/weddellSeal.html Voices in the Sea - Sounds of the Weddell Seal]
*[http://weddellsealscience.com/index.html Weddell seal science]
*[https://www.pinnipeds.org/seal-information/species-information-pages/the-phocid-seals/weddell-seal Information on Weddell seals]
*[http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/seals-and-sea-lions/weddell-seals Australian Antarctic Government]
*[https://marinebio.org/species/weddell-seals/leptonychotes-weddellii/ Biology of Weddell seals ]
*[https://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/wildlife/weddell_seals.php Fun facts about Weddell seals]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q313166}}

[[Category:Carnivorans of South America]]

{{Sourceattribution|Weddell seal}}