View source for Biology:Denitrification

{{Short description|Microbially facilitated process}}
[[File:Nitrogen Cycle.svg|thumb|320px|Nitrogen cycle.]]

'''Denitrification''' is a microbially facilitated process where nitrate (NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>) is reduced and ultimately produces molecular [[Chemistry:Nitrogen|nitrogen]] (N<sub>2</sub>) through a series of intermediate gaseous nitrogen oxide products. Facultative anaerobic bacteria perform denitrification as a type of respiration that [[Chemistry:Redox|reduces]] oxidized forms of nitrogen in response to the oxidation of an [[Chemistry:Electron donor|electron donor]] such as [[Chemistry:Organic matter|organic matter]]. The preferred nitrogen [[Chemistry:Electron acceptor|electron acceptor]]s in order of most to least thermodynamically favorable include [[Chemistry:Nitrate|nitrate]] (NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>), [[Chemistry:Nitrite|nitrite]] (NO<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup>), [[Chemistry:Nitric oxide|nitric oxide]] (NO), [[Chemistry:Nitrous oxide|nitrous oxide]] (N<sub>2</sub>O) finally resulting in the production of [[Chemistry:Dinitrogen|dinitrogen]] (N<sub>2</sub>) completing the [[Biology:Nitrogen cycle|nitrogen cycle]]. Denitrifying microbes require a very low oxygen concentration of less than 10%, as well as [[Chemistry:Organic compound|organic C]] for energy. Since denitrification can remove NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>, reducing its leaching to groundwater, it can be strategically used to treat sewage or animal residues of high nitrogen content. Denitrification can leak N<sub>2</sub>O, which is an ozone-depleting substance and a [[Chemistry:Greenhouse gas|greenhouse gas]] that can have a considerable influence on global warming.

The process is performed primarily by heterotrophic [[Biology:Bacteria|bacteria]] (such as ''[[Biology:Paracoccus denitrificans|Paracoccus denitrificans]]'' and various [[Biology:Pseudomonadaceae|pseudomonads]]),<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Carlson | first1 = C. A. | last2 = Ingraham | first2 = J. L. | year = 1983 | title = Comparison of denitrification by ''Pseudomonas stutzeri'', ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', and ''Paracoccus denitrificans'' | journal = Appl. Environ. Microbiol. | volume = 45 | issue = 4| pages = 1247–1253 | pmid = 6407395 | pmc = 242446 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.45.4.1247-1253.1983 | bibcode = 1983ApEnM..45.1247C }}</ref> although autotrophic denitrifiers have also been identified (e.g., ''[[Biology:Thiobacillus|Thiobacillus]] denitrificans'').<ref>{{cite journal |title=Studies on ''Thiobacillus denitrificans''|journal=Archiv für Mikrobiologie|volume=20|issue=1|pages=34–62|doi=10.1007/BF00412265|pmid=13139524|year=1954|last1=Baalsrud|first1=K.|last2=Baalsrud|first2=Kjellrun S.|s2cid=22428082}}</ref> Denitrifiers are represented in all main phylogenetic groups.<ref name=Zumft>{{cite journal |last1=Zumft |first1=W G |year=1997 |title=Cell biology and molecular basis of denitrification |url= | journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=61 |issue=4|pages=533–616 |doi=10.1128/mmbr.61.4.533-616.1997 |pmid=9409151 |pmc=232623 }}</ref> Generally several species of bacteria are involved in the complete reduction of nitrate to N<sub>2</sub>, and more than one enzymatic pathway has been identified in the reduction process.<ref>Atlas, R.M., Barthas, R. Microbial Ecology: Fundamentals and Applications. 3rd Ed. Benjamin-Cummings Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8053-0653-6}}</ref> The denitrification process does not only provide energy to the organism performing nitrate reduction to dinitrogen gas, but also some anaerobic ciliates can use denitrifying endosymbionts to gain energy similar to the use of mitochondria in oxygen respiring organisms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Graf |first1=Jon S. |last2=Schorn |first2=Sina |last3=Kitzinger |first3=Katharina |last4=Ahmerkamp |first4=Soeren |last5=Woehle |first5=Christian |last6=Huettel |first6=Bruno |last7=Schubert |first7=Carsten J. |last8=Kuypers |first8=Marcel M. M. |last9=Milucka |first9=Jana |title=Anaerobic endosymbiont generates energy for ciliate host by denitrification |journal=Nature |date=3 March 2021 |volume=591 |issue=7850 |pages=445–450 |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03297-6|pmid=33658719 |pmc=7969357 |bibcode=2021Natur.591..445G |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Direct reduction from nitrate to [[Chemistry:Ammonium|ammonium]], a process known as '''[[Biology:Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium|dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium]]''' or '''DNRA''',<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.3354/meps237041|bibcode=2002MEPS..237...41A|title=Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA) as a nitrogen link, versus denitrification as a sink in a shallow estuary (Laguna Madre/Baffin Bay, Texas)|journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series|volume=237|pages=41–50|last1=An|first1=S.|last2=Gardner|first2=WS|year=2002|doi-access=free}}</ref> is also possible for organisms that have the nrf-[[Biology:Gene|gene]].<ref>{{cite journal
|last1=Kuypers |first1= MMM |last2=Marchant |first2=HK |last3=Kartal |first3=B
|s2cid= 3948918 |title=The Microbial Nitrogen-Cycling Network
|journal=Nature Reviews Microbiology
|volume=1
|issue=1
|pages=1–14
|year=2011
|pmid=29398704
|doi=10.1038/nrmicro.2018.9
|hdl= 21.11116/0000-0003-B828-1 |hdl-access=free
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|doi=10.1007/1-4020-3544-6_13|author=Spanning, R., Delgado, M. and Richardson, D. |year=2005|quote=It is possible to encounter DNRA when your source of carbon is a fermentable substrate, as glucose, so if you wanna avoid DNRA use a non fermentable substrate|title=  Nitrogen Fixation: Origins, Applications, and Research Progress|pages=277–342|chapter=The Nitrogen Cycle: Denitrification and its Relationship to N<sub>2</sub> Fixation |isbn=978-1-4020-3542-5 }}</ref> This is less common than denitrification in most ecosystems as a means of nitrate reduction. Other genes known in microorganisms which denitrify include ''nir'' (nitrite reductase) and ''nos'' (nitrous oxide reductase) among others;<ref name=Zumft /> organisms identified as having these genes include ''[[Biology:Alcaligenes faecalis|Alcaligenes faecalis]]'', ''Alcaligenes xylosoxidans'', many in the genus ''Pseudomonas'', ''[[Biology:Bradyrhizobium japonicum|Bradyrhizobium japonicum]]'', and ''Blastobacter denitrificans''.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Liu | first1 = X. | last2 = Tiquia | first2 = S. M. | last3 = Holguin | first3 = G. | last4 = Wu | first4 = L. | last5 = Nold | first5 = S. C. | last6 = Devol | first6 = A. H. | last7 = Luo | first7 = K. | last8 = Palumbo | first8 = A. V. | last9 = Tiedje | first9 = J. M. | last10 = Zhou | first10 = J. | year = 2003 | title = Molecular Diversity of Denitrifying Genes in Continental Margin Sediments within the Oxygen-Deficient Zone off the Pacific Coast of Mexico | journal = Appl. Environ. Microbiol. | volume = 69 | issue = 6| pages = 3549–3560 | doi=10.1128/aem.69.6.3549-3560.2003| pmid = 12788762 | pmc = 161474 | bibcode = 2003ApEnM..69.3549L | citeseerx = 10.1.1.328.2951 }}</ref>

== Overview ==

=== Half reactions ===
Denitrification generally proceeds through some combination of the following half reactions, with the enzyme catalyzing the reaction in parentheses:
* NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> + 2 H<sup>+</sup> + 2 e<sup>−</sup> → {{chem|NO|2}}<sup>−</sup> + H<sub>2</sub>O ([[Biology:Nitrate reductase|Nitrate reductase]])
* {{chem|NO|2}}<sup>−</sup> + 2 H<sup>+</sup> + e<sup>−</sup> → NO + H<sub>2</sub>O  ([[Biology:Nitrite reductase|Nitrite reductase]])
* 2 NO + 2 H<sup>+</sup> +  2 e<sup>−</sup> → {{chem|N|2|O}} + H<sub>2</sub>O ([[Biology:Nitric-oxide reductase|Nitric-oxide reductase]])
* {{chem|N|2|O}} + 2 H<sup>+</sup> +  2 e<sup>−</sup> → {{chem|N|2 }} + H<sub>2</sub>O  ([[Biology:Nitrous-oxide reductase|Nitrous-oxide reductase]])
The complete process can be expressed as a net balanced [[Chemistry:Redox|redox]] reaction, where [[Chemistry:Nitrate|nitrate]] (NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>) gets fully reduced to [[Chemistry:Dinitrogen|dinitrogen]] (N<sub>2</sub>):
* 2 NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> + 10 e<sup>−</sup> + 12 H<sup>+</sup> → N<sub>2</sub> + 6 H<sub>2</sub>O

=== Conditions of denitrification ===
In nature, denitrification can take place in both terrestrial and marine [[Earth:Ecosystem|ecosystem]]s.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|last1=Seitzinger|first1=S.|last2=Harrison|first2=J. A.|last3=Bohlke|first3=J. K.|last4=Bouwman|first4=A. F.|last5=Lowrance|first5=R.|last6=Peterson|first6=B.|last7=Tobias|first7=C.|last8=Drecht|first8=G. V.|year=2006|title=Denitrification Across Landscapes and Waterscapes: A Synthesis|journal=Ecological Applications|volume=16|issue=6|pages=2064–2090|doi=10.1890/1051-0761(2006)016[2064:dalawa]2.0.co;2|pmid=17205890|hdl=1912/4707|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Typically, denitrification occurs in anoxic environments, where the concentration of dissolved and freely available oxygen is depleted. In these areas, nitrate (NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>) or nitrite ({{chem|NO|2}}<sup>−</sup>) can be used as a substitute terminal electron acceptor instead of [[Chemistry:Oxygen|oxygen]] (O<sub>2</sub>), a more energetically favourable electron acceptor. Terminal electron acceptor is a compound that gets reduced in the reaction by receiving electrons. Examples of anoxic environments can include [[Chemistry:Soil|soil]]s,<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|last1=Scaglia|first1=J.|last2=Lensi|first2=R.|last3=Chalamet|first3=A.|s2cid=20602996|year=1985|title=Relationship between photosynthesis and denitrification in planted soil|journal=Plant and Soil|volume=84|issue=1|pages=37–43|doi=10.1007/BF02197865}}</ref> [[Earth:Groundwater|groundwater]],<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|last=Korom|first=Scott F.|year=1992|title=Natural Denitrification in the Saturated Zone: A Review|journal=Water Resources Research|volume=28|issue=6|pages=1657–1668|bibcode=1992WRR....28.1657K|doi=10.1029/92WR00252}}</ref> wetlands, oil reservoirs,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Cornish Shartau|first1=S. L.|last2=Yurkiw|first2=M.|last3=Lin|first3=S.|last4=Grigoryan|first4=A. A.|last5=Lambo|first5=A.|last6=Park|first6=H. S.|last7=Lomans|first7=B. P.|last8=Van Der Biezen|first8=E.|last9=Jetten|first9=M. S. M.|year=2010|title=Ammonium Concentrations in Produced Waters from a Mesothermic Oil Field Subjected to Nitrate Injection Decrease through Formation of Denitrifying Biomass and Anammox Activity|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|volume=76|issue=15|pages=4977–4987|doi=10.1128/AEM.00596-10|pmc=2916462|pmid=20562276|last10=Voordouw|first10=G.|bibcode=2010ApEnM..76.4977C}}</ref> poorly ventilated corners of the ocean and seafloor sediments.

Furthermore, denitrification can occur in oxic environments as well. High activity of denitrifiers can be observed in the intertidal zones, where the tidal cycles cause fluctuations of oxygen concentration in sandy coastal sediments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Merchant|display-authors=et al|date=2017|title=Denitrifying community in coastal sediments performs aerobic and anaerobic respiration simultaneously|pmid=28463234|pmc=5520038|journal=The ISME Journal|volume=11|issue=8|pages=1799–1812|doi=10.1038/ismej.2017.51}}</ref> For example, the bacterial species ''Paracoccus denitrificans'' engages in denitrification under both oxic and anoxic conditions simultaneously. Upon oxygen exposure, the bacteria is able to utilize [[Biology:Nitrous-oxide reductase|nitrous oxide reductase]], an enzyme that catalyzes the last step of denitrification.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Qu|display-authors=et al|date=2016|title=Transcriptional and metabolic regulation of denitrification in Paracoccus denitrificans allows low but significant activity of nitrous oxide reductase under oxic conditions|pmid=26568281|journal=Environmental Microbiology|volume=18|issue=9|pages=2951–63|doi=10.1111/1462-2920.13128}}</ref> Aerobic denitrifiers are mainly Gram-negative bacteria in the phylum Proteobacteria. Enzymes NapAB, NirS, NirK and NosZ are located in the periplasm, a wide space bordered by the cytoplasmic and the outer membrane in Gram-negative bacteria.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Ji|first1=Bin|last2=Yang|first2=Kai|last3=Zhu|first3=Lei|last4=Jiang|first4=Yu|last5=Wang|first5=Hongyu|last6=Zhou|first6=Jun|last7=Zhang|first7=Huining|s2cid=85744076|date=2015|title=Aerobic denitrification: A review of important advances of the last 30 years|journal=Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering|volume=20|issue=4|pages=643–651|doi=10.1007/s12257-015-0009-0}}</ref>

Denitrification can lead to a condition called [[Physics:Isotope fractionation|isotopic fractionation]] in the soil environment. The two stable isotopes of nitrogen, <sup>14</sup>N and <sup>15</sup>N are both found in the sediment profiles. The lighter isotope of nitrogen, <sup>14</sup>N, is preferred during denitrification, leaving the heavier nitrogen isotope, <sup>15</sup>N, in the residual matter. This selectivity leads to the enrichment of <sup>14</sup>N in the biomass compared to <sup>15</sup>N.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Dähnke K. |author2=Thamdrup B.|date=2013|title=Nitrogen isotope dynamics and fractionation during sedimentary denitrification in Boknis Eck, Baltic Sea|journal=Biogeosciences|volume=10|issue=5|pages=3079–3088|via=Copernicus Publications|doi=10.5194/bg-10-3079-2013|bibcode=2013BGeo...10.3079D|doi-access=free}}</ref> Moreover, the relative abundance of <sup>14</sup>N can be analyzed to distinguish denitrification apart from other processes in nature.

==Use in wastewater treatment==
{{Further|Earth:Sewage treatment}}
Denitrification is commonly used to remove nitrogen from [[Earth:Sewage|sewage]] and municipal [[Earth:Wastewater|wastewater]]. It is also an instrumental process in [[Earth:Constructed wetland|constructed wetland]]s<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bachand | first1 = P. A. M. | last2 = Horne | first2 = A. J. | year = 1999 | title = Denitrification in constructed free-water surface wetlands: II. Effects of vegetation and temperature | journal = Ecological Engineering | volume = 14 | issue = 1–2| pages = 17–32 | doi=10.1016/s0925-8574(99)00017-8}}</ref> and riparian zones<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Martin | first1 = T. L. | last2 = Kaushik | first2 = N. K. | last3 = Trevors | first3 = J. T. | last4 = Whiteley | first4 = H. R. | year = 1999 | title = Review: Denitrification in temperate climate riparian zones | journal = Water, Air, and Soil Pollution | volume = 111 | pages = 171–186 | doi=10.1023/a:1005015400607| bibcode = 1999WASP..111..171M | s2cid = 96384737 }}</ref> for the prevention of [[Earth:Groundwater pollution|groundwater pollution]] with nitrate resulting from excessive agricultural or residential [[Chemistry:Fertilizer|fertilizer]] usage.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mulvaney | first1 = R. L. | last2 = Khan | first2 = S. A. | last3 = Mulvaney | first3 = C. S. | s2cid = 18518 | year = 1997 | title = Nitrogen fertilizers promote denitrification | journal = Biology and Fertility of Soils | volume = 24 | issue = 2| pages = 211–220 | doi=10.1007/s003740050233}}</ref>
[[Biology:Woodchips#Bioreactor|Wood chip bioreactors]] have been studied since the 2000s and are effective in removing nitrate from agricultural run off<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ghane | first1 = E | last2 = Fausey | first2 = NR | last3 = Brown | first3 = LC | date = Jan 2015 | title = Modeling nitrate removal in a denitrification bed | journal = Water Res. | volume = 71C | pages = 294–305 | doi = 10.1016/j.watres.2014.10.039 | pmid = 25638338 | bibcode = 2015WatRe..71..294G }} {{subscription required}}</ref> and even manure.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Carney KN | first1 = Rodgers M | last2 = Lawlor | first2 = PG | last3 = Zhan | first3 = X | year = 2013 | title = Treatment of separated piggery anaerobic digestate liquid using woodchip biofilters | journal = Environ Technology | volume = 34 | issue = 5–8| pages = 663–70 | doi = 10.1080/09593330.2012.710408 | pmid = 23837316 | s2cid = 10397713 }} {{subscription required}}</ref>

Reduction under anoxic conditions can also occur through process called anaerobic ammonium oxidation ([[Biology:Anammox|anammox]]):<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dalsgaard | first1 = T. | last2 = Thamdrup | first2 = B. | last3 = Canfield | first3 = D. E. | year = 2005 | title = Anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox) in the marine environment | journal = Research in Microbiology | volume = 156 | issue = 4| pages = 457–464 | doi=10.1016/j.resmic.2005.01.011| pmid = 15862442 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

:NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> + NO<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup> → N<sub>2</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O

In some [[Earth:Sewage treatment|wastewater treatment plants]], compounds such as [[Chemistry:Methanol|methanol]], [[Chemistry:Ethanol|ethanol]], [[Chemistry:Acetate|acetate]], glycerin, or proprietary products are added to the wastewater to provide a carbon and electron source for denitrifying bacteria.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chen | first1 = K.-C. | last2 = Lin | first2 = Y.-F. | year = 1993 | title = The relationship between denitrifying bacteria and methanogenic bacteria in a mixed culture system of acclimated sludges | journal = Water Research | volume = 27 | issue = 12| pages = 1749–1759 | doi=10.1016/0043-1354(93)90113-v| bibcode = 1993WatRe..27.1749C }}</ref> The microbial ecology of such engineered denitrification processes is determined by the nature of the electron donor and the process operating conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baytshtok|first1=Vladimir|last2=Lu|first2=Huijie|last3=Park|first3=Hongkeun|last4=Kim|first4=Sungpyo|last5=Yu|first5=Ran|last6=Chandran|first6=Kartik|date=2009-04-15|title=Impact of varying electron donors on the molecular microbial ecology and biokinetics of methylotrophic denitrifying bacteria|journal=Biotechnology and Bioengineering|volume=102|issue=6|pages=1527–1536|doi=10.1002/bit.22213|pmid=19097144|s2cid=6445650}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lu|first1=Huijie|last2=Chandran|first2=Kartik|last3=Stensel|first3=David|date=November 2014|title=Microbial ecology of denitrification in biological wastewater treatment|journal=Water Research|volume=64|pages=237–254|doi=10.1016/j.watres.2014.06.042|pmid=25078442|bibcode=2014WatRe..64..237L }}</ref>  Denitrification processes are also used in the treatment of industrial wastewater.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Constantin | first1 = H. | last2 = Fick | first2 = M. | year = 1997 | title = Influence of C-sources on the denitrification rate of a high-nitrate concentrated industrial wastewater | journal = Water Research | volume = 31 | issue = 3| pages = 583–589 | doi=10.1016/s0043-1354(96)00268-0| bibcode = 1997WatRe..31..583C }}</ref> Many denitrifying bioreactor types and designs are available commercially for the industrial applications, including [[Engineering:Electro-biochemical reactor|Electro-Biochemical Reactors (EBRs)]], membrane bioreactors (MBRs), and moving bed bioreactors (MBBRs).

Aerobic denitrification, conducted by aerobic denitrifiers, may offer the potential to eliminate the need for separate tanks and reduce sludge yield. There are less stringent alkalinity requirements because alkalinity generated during denitrification can partly compensate for the alkalinity consumption in nitrification.<ref name=":4" />

==Non-biological denitrification==

A variety of non-biological methods can remove nitrate. These include methods that can destroy nitrogen compounds, such as chemical and electrochemical methods, and those that selectively transfer nitrate to a concentrated waste stream, such as ion exchange or reverse osmosis. Chemical removal of nitrate can occur through advanced oxidation processes, although it may produce hazardous byproducts.<ref name="Rayaroth Aravindakumar Shah Boczkaj 2022 p=133002">{{cite journal | last1=Rayaroth | first1=Manoj P. | last2=Aravindakumar | first2=Charuvila T. | last3=Shah | first3=Noor S. | last4=Boczkaj | first4=Grzegorz | title=Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) based wastewater treatment - unexpected nitration side reactions - a serious environmental issue: A review | journal=Chemical Engineering Journal | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=430 | year=2022 | issn=1385-8947 | doi=10.1016/j.cej.2021.133002 | page=133002| doi-access=free }}</ref> Electrochemical methods can remove nitrate by via a voltage applied across electrodes, with degradation usually occurring at the cathode. Effective cathode materials include transition metals, post transition metals,<ref name="NitrateElectroReview">{{cite journal | last1=Rajmohan | first1=K. S. | last2=Gopinath | first2=M. | last3=Chetty | first3=Raghuram | title=Review on challenges and opportunities in the removal of nitrate from wastewater using electrochemical method | publisher=Triveni Enterprises | volume=37 | year=2016 | issn=2394-0379 | pages=1519–1528}}</ref> and semi-conductors like TiO<sub>2</sub>.<ref name="Ji Niu Xu Wang 2021 p=129706">{{cite journal | last1=Ji | first1=Yangyuan | last2=Niu | first2=Junfeng | last3=Xu | first3=Dong | last4=Wang | first4=Kaixuan | last5=Brejcha | first5=Jacob | last6=Jeon | first6=Seunghyo | last7=Warsinger | first7=David M | title=Efficient electrocatalysis for denitrification by using TiO<sub>2</sub> nanotube arrays cathode and adding chloride ions | journal=Chemosphere | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=274 | year=2021 | issn=0045-6535 | doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.129706 | page=129706| pmid=33540319 | bibcode=2021Chmsp.274l9706J | s2cid=231818217 | url=https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1047&context=mepubs }}</ref> Electrochemical methods can often avoid requiring costly chemical additives, but their effectiveness can be constrained by the pH and ions present. Reverse osmosis is highly effective in removing small charged solutes like nitrate, but it may also remove desirable nutrients, create large volumes of wastewater, and require increased pumping pressures. Ion exchange can selectively remove nitrate from water without large waste streams,<ref name="Krueger 1949 pp. 482–487">{{cite journal | last=Krueger | first=Gordon M. | title=A method for the removal of nitrates from waterprior to use in infant formula | journal=The Journal of Pediatrics | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=35 | issue=4 | year=1949 | issn=0022-3476 | doi=10.1016/s0022-3476(49)80063-1 | pages=482–487| pmid=18143940 }}</ref> but do require regeneration and may face challenges with absorption of undesired ions.

== See also ==
* [[Biology:Aerobic denitrification|Aerobic denitrification]]
* [[Biology:Anaerobic respiration|Anaerobic respiration]]
* [[Earth:Bioremediation|Bioremediation]]
* [[Earth:Climate change|Climate change]]
* [[Earth:Hypoxia (environmental)|Hypoxia (environmental)]]
* [[Biology:Nitrogen fixation|Nitrogen fixation]]
* Simultaneous nitrification-denitrification

== References ==
{{reflist}}


[[Category:Nitrogen cycle]]
[[Category:Environmental microbiology]]

{{Sourceattribution|Denitrification}}