View source for Biography:Fritz Haber

{{short description|German-Jewish chemist and Nobel laureate}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Fritz Haber
| image = Fritz Haber.png
| caption = Fritz Haber, {{circa|1919}}
| birth_place = Breslau, [[Place:Prussia|Prussia]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1918/haber-bio.html |title=Fritz Haber – Biographical
 |publisher=Nobelprize.org}}</ref><br>(now Wrocław, {{wipe|Poland}})
| nationality = German<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nndb.com/people/884/000092608/ |title=Fritz Haber
 |publisher=NNDB.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-13015210 |title=Fritz Haber: Jewish chemist whose work led to Zyklon B
 |work=BBC News
 |date=12 April 2011
 |last1=Bowlby
 |first1=Chris
 }}</ref>
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1934|01|29|1868|12|09}}
| death_place = [[Place:Basel|Basel]], {{wipe|Switzerland}}
| field = [[Chemistry:Physical chemistry|Physical chemistry]]
| workplaces = [[Organization:ETH Zurich|Swiss Federal Institute of Technology]]<br />University of Karlsruhe
| alma_mater = [[Organization:Heidelberg University|Heidelberg University]]<br />Humboldt University of Berlin<br />[[Organization:Technical University of Berlin|Technical University of Berlin]]
| doctoral_advisor = Carl Theodore Liebermann{{Citation needed|date=August 2017}}
| doctoral_students = 
| known_for = [[Chemistry:Haber process|Haber process]]<br />[[Physics:Born–Haber cycle|Born–Haber cycle]]<br />[[Chemistry:Fertilizer|Fertilizer]]<br />[[Physics:Haber–Weiss reaction|Haber–Weiss reaction]]<br />[[Social:Chemical warfare|Chemical warfare]]<br />Second Battle of Ypres<br />Explosives
| prizes = {{Plainlist|
* Iron Cross {{small|(1915)}}
* Nobel Prize in Chemistry {{small|(1918)}}
* Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences  {{small|(1932)}}
* Rumford Medal {{small|(1932)}} }}
| spouse = Clara Immerwahr (1901–1915; her death; 1 child)<br />Charlotte Nathan (1917–1927; divorced; 2 children)
}}
'''Fritz Haber''' ({{IPA-de|ˈhaːbɐ|lang}}; 9 December 1868&nbsp;– 29 January 1934) was a German<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Fritz-Haber|title=Fritz Haber {{!}} Biography & Facts|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=19 March 2018|language=en}}</ref> [[Chemist|chemist]] who received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1918 for his invention of the [[Chemistry:Haber process|Haber–Bosch process]], a method used in industry to synthesize [[Chemistry:Ammonia|ammonia]] from [[Chemistry:Nitrogen|nitrogen]] gas and [[Chemistry:Hydrogen|hydrogen]] gas. This invention is of importance for the large-scale synthesis of [[Chemistry:Fertilizer|fertilizer]]s and explosives. The food production for half the world's current population involves this method for producing nitrogen fertilizers.<ref>{{cite book|first=Vaclav|last=Smil|date=2004|title=Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=9780262693134|page=156}}</ref> Haber, along with [[Biography:Max Born|Max Born]], proposed the [[Physics:Born–Haber cycle|Born–Haber cycle]] as a method for evaluating the [[Physics:Lattice energy|lattice energy]] of an ionic solid.

Haber is also considered the "father of [[Social:Chemical warfare|chemical warfare]]" for his years of pioneering work developing and weaponizing [[Chemistry:Chlorine#Use as a weapon|chlorine]] and other poisonous gases during [[Social:World War I|World War I]], especially his actions during the Second Battle of Ypres.

==Early life and education==
Fritz Haber was born in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland), [[Place:Prussia|Prussia]], into a well-off [[Religion:Jews|Jewish]] family.<ref name="Goran" />{{rp|38}} The family name Haber was a common one in the area, but Fritz Haber's family has been traced back to a great-grandfather, Pinkus Selig Haber, a wool dealer from Kempen (now Kępno, Poland). An important Prussian edict of 13 March 1812 determined that Jews and their families, including Pinkus Haber, were "to be treated as local citizens and citizens of Prussia". Under such regulations, members of the Haber family were able to establish themselves in respected positions in business, politics, and law.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|3–5}}

Fritz Haber was the son of Siegfried and Paula Haber, first cousins who married in spite of considerable opposition from their families.<ref name=Charles>{{cite book|last1=Charles|first1=Daniel|title=Master mind : the rise and fall of Fritz Haber, the Nobel laureate who launched the age of chemical warfare|date=2005|publisher=Ecco|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-06-056272-4|edition=1.|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=b3W7Fk63dbIC&pg=PT15|access-date=8 September 2014}}</ref> Fritz's father Siegfried was a well-known merchant in the town, who had founded his own business in dye pigments, paints and pharmaceuticals.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|6}} Paula experienced a difficult pregnancy and died three weeks after Fritz's birth, leaving Siegfried devastated and Fritz in the care of various aunts.<ref name="Stoltzenberg">{{cite book|title=Fritz Haber : Chemist, Nobel laureate, German, Jew|last1=Stoltzenberg|first1=Dietrich|date=2004|publisher=Chemical Heritage Foundation|isbn=978-0-941901-24-6|location=Philadelphia}}<!--|access-date=8 September 2014--></ref>{{rp|11}} When Fritz was about six years old, Siegfried remarried, to Hedwig Hamburger. Siegfried and his second wife had three daughters, Else, Helene and Frieda. Although his relationship with his father was distant and often difficult, Fritz developed close relationships with his step-mother and his half-sisters.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|7}}

By the time Fritz was born, the Habers had to some extent assimilated into German society. Fritz attended primary school at the Johanneum School, a "simultaneous school" open equally to Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish students.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|12}} At age 11, he went to school at the St. Elizabeth classical school, in a class evenly divided between Protestant and Jewish students.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|14}} His family supported the Jewish community and continued to observe many Jewish traditions, but were not strongly associated with the synagogue.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|15}} Fritz Haber identified strongly as German, less so as Jewish.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|15}}

Fritz Haber successfully passed his examinations at the St. Elizabeth High School in Breslau in September 1886.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|16}} Although his father wished him to apprentice in the dye company, Fritz obtained his father's permission to study chemistry, at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin (today the Humboldt University of Berlin), with the director of the Institute for Chemistry, A. W. Hofmann.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|17}} Haber was disappointed by his initial winter semester (1886–87) in Berlin, and arranged to attend the [[Organization:Heidelberg University|Heidelberg University]] for the summer semester of 1887, where he studied under [[Biography:Robert Bunsen|Robert Bunsen]].<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|18}} 
He then returned to Berlin, to the Technical College of Charlottenburg (today the [[Organization:Technical University of Berlin|Technical University of Berlin]]).<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|19}} 

In the summer of 1889 Haber left university to perform a legally required year of voluntary service in the Sixth Field Artillery Regiment.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|20}} Upon its completion, he returned to Charlottenburg where he became a student of Carl Liebermann. In addition to Liebermann's lectures on organic chemistry, Haber also attended lectures by Otto Witt on the chemical technology of dyes.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|21}} 

Liebermann assigned Haber to work on reactions with [[Chemistry:Piperonal|piperonal]] for his thesis topic, published as ''Ueber einige Derivate des Piperonals'' (About a Few piperonal Derivatives) in 1891.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ueber einige Derivate des piperonals (cover)|url=http://www.mdma.net/fritz-haber/inaugural-dissertation.html|access-date=8 September 2014}}</ref> Haber received his doctorate ''cum laude'' from Friedrich Wilhelm University in May 1891, after presenting his work to a board of examiners from the University of Berlin, since Charlottenburg was not yet accredited to grant doctorates.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|22}}

With his degree, Fritz returned to Breslau to work at his father's chemical business. They did not get along well. Through Siegfried's connections, Fritz was assigned a series of practical apprenticeships in different chemical companies, to gain experience. These included Grünwald and Company (a Budapest distillers), an Austrian ammonia-sodium factory, and the Feldmühle paper and cellulose works. Haber realized, based on these experiences, that he needed to learn more about technical processes, and persuaded his father to let him spend a semester at Polytechnic College in [[Place:Zürich|Zürich]] (now the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology), studying with Georg Lunge.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|27–29}} In fall of 1892, Haber returned again to Breslau to work in his father's company, but the two men continued to clash and Siegfried finally accepted that they could not work well together.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|30–31}}

==Early career==
Haber then sought an academic appointment, first working as an independent assistant to Ludwig Knorr at the University of Jena between 1892 and 1894.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|32}} During his time in Jena, Haber converted from Judaism to Lutheranism, possibly in an attempt to improve his chances of getting a better academic or military position.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|33}} Knorr recommended Haber to Carl Engler,<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|33}} a chemistry professor at the University of Karlsruhe who was intensely interested in the chemical technology of dye and the dye industry, and the study of synthetic materials for textiles.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|38}} Engler referred Haber to a colleague in Karlsruhe, Hans Bunte, who made Haber an ''Assistent'' in 1894.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|40}}<ref name=NobelBio>{{cite web|title=Fritz Haber – Biographical|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1918/haber-bio.html|website=Nobelprize.org|publisher=Nobel Media AB 2014|access-date=8 September 2014}}</ref>

Bunte suggested that Haber examine the thermal decomposition of [[Chemistry:Hydrocarbon|hydrocarbon]]s. By making careful quantitative analyses, Haber was able to establish that "the thermal stability of the carbon-carbon bond is greater than that of the carbon-hydrogen bond in aromatic compounds and smaller in aliphatic compounds", a classic result in the study of [[Chemistry:Pyrolysis|pyrolysis]] of hydrocarbons. This work became Haber's [[Social:Habilitation|habilitation]] thesis.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|40}}

Haber was appointed a [[Social:Privatdozent|Privatdozent]] in Bunte's institute, taking on teaching duties related to the area of dye technology, and continuing to work on the combustion of gases. In 1896, the university supported him in traveling to Silesia, Saxony, and Austria to learn about advances in dye technology.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|41}}

In 1897 Haber made a similar trip to learn about developments in [[Chemistry:Electrochemistry|electrochemistry]].<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|41}} He had been interested in the area for some time, and had worked with another privatdozent, Hans Luggin, who gave theoretical lectures in electrochemistry and physical chemistry. Haber's 1898 book ''Grundriss der technischen Elektrochemie auf theoretischer Grundlage'' (Outline of technical electrochemistry based on theoretical foundations) attracted considerable attention, particularly his work on the reduction of [[Chemistry:Nitrobenzene|nitrobenzene]]. In the book's foreword, Haber expresses his gratitude to Luggin, who died on 5 December 1899.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|42}} Haber collaborated with others in the area as well, including Georg Bredig, a student and later an assistant of [[Biography:Wilhelm Ostwald|Wilhelm Ostwald]] in Leipzig.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|43}}

Bunte and Engler supported an application for further authorization of Haber's teaching activities, and on 6 December 1898, Haber was invested with the title of ''Extraordinarius'' and an associate professorship, by order of the Grand Duke Friedrich von Baden.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|44}}

Haber worked in a variety of areas while at Karlsruhe, making significant contributions in several areas. In the area of dye and textiles, he and Friedrich Bran were able to theoretically explain steps in textile printing processes developed by Adolf Holz. Discussions with Carl Engler prompted Haber to explain [[Chemistry:Autoxidation|autoxidation]] in electrochemical terms, differentiating between dry and wet autoxidation. Haber's examinations of the thermodynamics of the reaction of solids confirmed that [[Chemistry:Faraday's laws of electrolysis|Faraday's laws]] hold for the electrolysis of crystalline salts. This work led to a theoretical basis for the [[Physics:Glass electrode|glass electrode]] and the measurement of electrolytic potentials. Haber's work on irreversible and reversible forms of [[Chemistry:Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide|electrochemical reduction]] are considered classics in the field of electrochemistry. He also studied the [[Engineering:Passivation|passivity]] of non-rare metals and the effects of electric current on [[Chemistry:Corrosion|corrosion]] of metals.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|55}} In addition, Haber published his second book, ''Thermodynamik technischer Gasreaktionen : sieben Vorlesungen'' (1905) trans. ''Thermodynamics of technical gas-reactions : seven lectures'' (1908), later regarded as "a model of accuracy and critical insight" in the field of chemical thermodynamics.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|56–58}}

In 1906, Max Le Blanc, chair of the physical chemistry department at Karlsruhe, accepted a position at the University of Leipzig. After receiving recommendations from a search committee, the Ministry of Education in Baden offered the full professorship for physical chemistry at Karlsruhe to Fritz Haber, who accepted the offer.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|61}}

==Nobel Prize==
During his time at University of Karlsruhe from 1894 to 1911, Haber and his assistant Robert Le Rossignol invented the [[Chemistry:Haber process|Haber–Bosch process]], which is the catalytic formation of [[Chemistry:Ammonia|ammonia]] from [[Chemistry:Hydrogen|hydrogen]] and atmospheric [[Chemistry:Nitrogen|nitrogen]] under conditions of high temperature and pressure.<ref name=Hager>{{cite book|first=Thomas|last=Hager|title=The Alchemy of Air|publisher=Three Rivers Press|location=New York City|date=2008|isbn=978-0-307-35179-1|page=90}}</ref> This discovery was a direct consequence of Le Châtelier's principle, announced in 1884, which states that when a system is in equilibrium and one of the factors affecting it is changed, the system will respond by minimizing the effect of the change. Since it was known how to decompose ammonia on nickel based catalyst, one could derive from Le Châtelier's principle that the reaction could be reversed to produce ammonia at high temperature and pressure (a process that Henry Louis Le Châtelier had even tried himself but gave up after his technician almost killed himself, due to an oxygen intake related explosion).

To further develop the process for large-scale ammonia production, Haber turned to industry.  Teaming with [[Biography:Carl Bosch|Carl Bosch]] at BASF, the process was successfully scaled-up to produce commercial quantities of ammonia.<ref name=Hager /> The Haber–Bosch process was a milestone in industrial chemistry. The production of nitrogen-based products such as [[Chemistry:Fertilizer|fertilizer]] and chemical feedstocks, previously dependent on acquisition of ammonia from limited natural deposits, now became possible using an easily available, abundant base&nbsp;— atmospheric nitrogen.<ref name=LandauSymposium>{{cite book|title=Technology & economics: Papers commemorating Ralph Landau's service to the National Academy of Engineering.|date=1991|publisher=National Academy Press|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-0-309-04397-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/technologyeconom00land/page/110 110]|url=https://archive.org/details/technologyeconom00land/page/110}}</ref> The ability to produce much larger quantities of nitrogen-based fertilizers in turn supported much greater agricultural yields and prevented billions of people from starving to death.<ref name=Brot />

The discovery of a new way of producing ammonia had other significant economic impacts as well. {{wipe|Chile}} had been a major (and almost unique) producer of natural deposits such as [[Chemistry:Sodium nitrate|sodium nitrate]] (caliche). After the introduction of the Haber process, naturally extracted nitrate production in Chile fell from 2.5 million tons (employing 60,000 workers and selling at US$45/ton) in 1925 to just 800,000 tons, produced by 14,133 workers, and selling at $19/ton in 1934.<ref name="Collier">{{cite book|title=A history of Chile, 1808–2002|last1=Collier|first1=Simon|last2=Sater|first2=William F.|date=2004|publisher={{wipe|Cambridge University Press}}|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0521827493<!--[and/]or 9780521534840-->|edition=2nd}}</ref>

The annual world production of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer is currently more than 100 million tons. The food base of half of the current world population is based on the Haber–Bosch process.<ref name=Brot>Albrecht, Jörg (2008) [https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wissen/physik-mehr/100-jahre-haber-bosch-verfahren-brot-und-kriege-aus-der-luft-1713668.html "Brot und Kriege aus der Luft"]. ''Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung''.  p. 77 (Data from "Nature Geosience").</ref>

Haber was awarded the 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work (he actually received the award in 1919).<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1918|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1918/|website=Nobelprize.org|publisher=Nobel Media AB 2014|access-date=8 September 2014}}</ref>

Haber was also active in the research on [[Physics:Combustion|combustion]] reactions, the separation of gold from sea water, [[Chemistry:Adsorption|adsorption]] effects, [[Chemistry:Electrochemistry|electrochemistry]], and free radical research (see [[Chemistry:Fenton's reagent|Fenton's reagent]]). A large part of his work from 1911 to 1933 was done at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry at Berlin-Dahlem. In 1953, this institute was renamed for him. He is sometimes credited, incorrectly, with first synthesizing [[Chemistry:MDMA|MDMA]] (which was first synthesized by Merck KGaA [[Chemist|chemist]] Anton Köllisch in 1912).<ref name="Benzenhöfer">{{cite journal | last1 = Benzenhöfer | first1 = U | last2 = Passie | first2 = T | title = The early history of "Ecstasy" | url = http://www.mdma.net/mdma.pdf | journal = Der Nervenarzt | volume = 77 | issue = 1 | pages = 95–6, 98–9 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16397805 | doi = 10.1007/s00115-005-2001-y }}</ref>

==World War I==
Haber greeted World War I with enthusiasm, joining 92 other German intellectuals in signing the ''[[Unsolved:Manifesto of the Ninety-Three|Manifesto of the Ninety-Three]]'' in October 1914.<ref name=ED>{{cite book|last1=Grundmann|first1=Siegfried|title=The Einstein Dossiers|date=2005|publisher=Springer|location=Berlin}}</ref> Haber played a major role in the development of the non-ballistic use of chemical warfare in World War I, in spite of the proscription of their use in shells by the Hague Convention of 1907 (to which Germany was a signatory). He was promoted to the rank of captain and made head of the Chemistry Section in the Ministry of War soon after the war began.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|133}} In addition to leading the teams developing [[Chemistry:Chlorine#Use as a weapon|chlorine gas]] and other deadly gases for use in [[Earth:Trench warfare|trench warfare]],<ref name="Gross">{{cite journal|last1=Gross|first1=Daniel A.|title=Chemical Warfare: From the European Battlefield to the American Laboratory|journal=Distillations|date=Spring 2015|volume=1|issue=1|pages=16–23|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/chemical-warfare-from-the-european-battlefield-to-the-american-laboratory|accessdate=20 March 2018}}</ref> Haber was on hand personally when it was first released by the German military at the Second Battle of Ypres (22 April to 25 May 1915) in Belgium.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|138}} Haber also helped to develop [[Engineering:Gas mask|gas mask]]s with [[Chemistry:Adsorption|adsorbent]] filters which could protect against such weapons.

A special troop was formed for gas warfare (Pioneer Regiments 35 and 36) under the command of Otto Peterson, with Haber and Friedrich Kerschbaum as advisors. Haber actively recruited physicists, chemists, and other scientists to be transferred to the unit. Future Nobel laureates [[Biography:James Franck|James Franck]], Gustav Hertz, and [[Biography:Otto Hahn|Otto Hahn]] served as gas troops in Haber's unit.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|136–138}} In 1914 and 1915, before the Second Battle of Ypres, Haber's unit investigated reports that the French had deployed Turpenite, a supposed chemical weapon, against German soldiers.<ref>Richter, Donald C. ''Chemical Soldiers: British Gas Warfare in World War I''. University Press of Kansas: 1992. Page 6.</ref>

Gas warfare in World War I was, in a sense, the war of the chemists, with Haber pitted against French Nobel laureate chemist [[Biography:Victor Grignard|Victor Grignard]]. Regarding war and peace, Haber once said, "during peace time a scientist belongs to the World, but during war time he belongs to his country." This was an example of the ethical dilemmas facing chemists at that time.<ref name=Novak>{{cite book|last1=Novak|first1=Igor|title=Science : a many-splendored thing|url=https://archive.org/details/sciencemanysplen00nova|url-access=limited|date=2011|publisher=World Scientific|location=Singapore|isbn=978-9814304740|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sciencemanysplen00nova/page/n263 247]–316|doi=10.1142/9789814304757_0004|chapter=Science and History}}</ref>

Haber was a patriotic German who was proud of his service during World War I, for which he was decorated. He was even given the rank of captain by the Kaiser, which Haber had been denied 25 years earlier during his compulsory military service.<ref name="Coffey2008">{{cite book|author=Coffey, Patrick |title=Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQt6glJEiGsC&pg=PA102|date=29 August 2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-971746-0|pages=102–}}</ref>

In his studies of the effects of poison gas, Haber noted that exposure to a low concentration of a poisonous gas for a long time often had the same effect (death) as exposure to a high concentration for a short time. He formulated a simple mathematical relationship between the gas concentration and the necessary exposure time. This relationship became known as [[Chemistry:Haber's rule|Haber's rule]].<ref name="GadKaplan1990">{{cite book|author1=Gad, Shayne C. |author2=Kaplan, Harold L. |title=Combustion Toxicology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=088qMHudhRoC&pg=PA99|date=2 October 1990|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4398-0532-9|pages=99–}}</ref><ref name="SalemKatz2014">{{cite book|author1=Salem, Harry |author2=Katz, Sidney A. |title=Inhalation Toxicology, Third Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pWULBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA130|date= 2014|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4665-5273-9|pages=130–}}</ref>

Haber defended gas warfare against accusations that it was inhumane, saying that death was death, by whatever means it was inflicted. During the 1920s, scientists working at his institute developed the [[Chemistry:Hydrogen cyanide|cyanide]] gas formulation [[Chemistry:Methyl cyanoformate|Zyklon A]], which was used as an [[Biology:Insecticide|insecticide]], especially as a [[Biology:Fumigation|fumigant]] in grain stores.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Szöllösi-Janze, M. | title=Pesticides and war: the case of Fritz Haber | journal=European Review | year=2001 | volume=9 | issue=1 | pages=97–108 | doi=10.1017/S1062798701000096 }}</ref>

Haber received much criticism for his involvement in the development of chemical weapons in pre-World War II Germany, both from contemporaries and from modern-day scientists.<ref name="Shapin">{{cite journal|last1=Shapin|first1=Steven|title=Tod aus Luft|journal=London Review of Books|date=26 January 2006|volume=28|issue=2|pages=7–8|url=https://www.lrb.co.uk/v28/n02/steven-shapin/tod-aus-luft|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="Genius">{{cite book|last1=Charles|first1=Daniel|title=Between genius and genocide : the tragedy of Fritz Haber, father of chemical warfare|date=2006|publisher=Pimlico|location=London|isbn=978-1844130924}}</ref>

==Personal life and family==
[[File:Clara Immerwahr.jpg|thumb|Clara Immerwahr]]
Haber met Clara Immerwahr in Breslau in 1889, while he was serving his required year in the military. Clara was the daughter of a chemist who owned a sugar factory, and was the first woman to earn a PhD (in chemistry) at the University of Breslau.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|20}} She converted from [[Religion:Judaism|Judaism]] to Christianity in 1897, several years before she and Haber became engaged. They were married on 3 August 1901;<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|46}} their son Hermann was born on 1 June 1902.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|173}}

Clara was a women's rights activist and according to some accounts, a [[Social:Pacifism|pacifist]]. Intelligent and a perfectionist, she became increasingly depressed after her marriage and the loss of her career.<ref name="Creese">{{cite book|last1=Creese|first1=Mary R. S. Creese|last2=Creese|first2=Thomas M.|title=Ladies in the Laboratory II: West European women in science, 1800 – 1900 : a survey of their contributions to research|date=2004|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-0810849792|pages=143–145|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SVYnAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA143}}</ref><ref name="Friedrich">{{cite journal|last1=Friedrich|first1=Bretislav|last2=Hoffmann|first2=Dieter|title=Clara Haber, nee Immerwahr (1870-1915): Life, Work and Legacy|journal=Zeitschrift für Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie|date=March 2016|volume=642|issue=6|pages=437–448|doi=10.1002/zaac.201600035|pmc=4825402|pmid=27099403}}</ref><ref name=Carty>{{cite journal|last1=Carty|first1=Ryan|title=Casualty of War|journal=Chemical Heritage Magazine|date=2012|volume=30|issue=2|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/casualty-of-war|access-date=22 March 2018}}</ref>  On 2 May 1915, following an argument with Haber, Clara committed suicide in their garden by shooting herself in the heart with his service revolver. She did not die immediately, and was found by her 12-year-old son, Hermann, who had heard the shots.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|176}}

Her reasons for suicide have been the subject of ongoing speculation.  There were multiple stresses in the marriage,<ref name=Carty /><ref name="Friedrich" /><ref name="Creese" /> and it has been suggested that she opposed Haber's work in chemical warfare. According to this view, her suicide may have been in part a response to Haber's having personally overseen the first successful use of [[Chemistry:Chlorine#Use as a weapon|chlorine gas]] during the Second Battle of Ypres, resulting in over 67,000 casualties.<ref name="Hobbes">{{cite book |last=Hobbes |first=Nicholas |title=Essential Militaria |year=2003 |publisher=Atlantic Books |isbn=978-1-84354-229-2}}</ref><ref name=Mistake>{{cite book|last1=Albarelli|first1=H.P.|title=A terrible mistake : the murder of Frank Olson, and the CIA's secret cold war experiments|date=2009|publisher=Trine Day|location=Walterville, OR|isbn=978-0-9777953-7-6|edition=1st|url=https://archive.org/details/terriblemistake00hpal|access-date=9 September 2014}}</ref>  Haber left within days for the Eastern Front to oversee gas release against the Russian Army.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Huxtable | first=R. J. | year=2002 | title=Reflections: Fritz Haber and the ambiguity of ethics | volume=45 | pages=1–3 | journal=Proceedings Western Pharmacology Soc | url=http://www.medicine.nevada.edu/wps/Proceedings/45/01-3-PWPS2002HuxtableHaber.pdf | access-date=2 April 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407120759/http://www.medicine.nevada.edu/wps/Proceedings/45/01-3-PWPS2002HuxtableHaber.pdf | archive-date=7 April 2014 | url-status=dead | pmid=12434507 }}</ref><ref>{{cite interview |last1=Stern |first1=Fritz |title=How Do You Solve a Problem Like Fritz Haber? |last2=Charles |first2=Daniel |last3=Nasser |first3=Latif |last4=Kaufman |first4=Fred |interviewer=Jad Abumrad, Robert Krulwich |url=http://www.radiolab.org/story/180132-how-do-you-solve-problem-fritz-haber/ |work=Radiolab |publisher=WNYC |location=New York, NY |date=9 January 2012 |access-date=2 April 2014}}</ref> Originally buried in Dahlem, Clara's remains were later transferred at her husband's request to Basel, where she is buried next to him.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|176}}

Haber married his second wife, Charlotte Nathan, on 25 October 1917 in Berlin.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|183}} Charlotte, like Clara, converted from Judaism to Christianity before marrying Haber.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|183}} The couple had two children, Eva-Charlotte and Ludwig-Fritz ("Lutz").<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|186}} Again, however, there were conflicts, and the couple were divorced as of 6 December 1927.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|188}}

Hermann Haber lived in France until 1941, but was unable to obtain French citizenship. When Germany invaded France during World War II, Hermann and his wife and three daughters escaped internment on a French ship travelling from Marseilles to the Caribbean. From there, they obtained visas allowing them to immigrate to the United States. Hermann's wife Margarethe died after the end of the war, and Hermann committed suicide in 1946.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|182–183}} His oldest daughter, Claire, committed suicide in  1949; also a chemist, she had been told her research into an antidote for the effects of chlorine gas was being set aside, as work on the atomic bomb was taking precedence.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2016/jun/05/the-forbidden-zone-fritz-haber-barbican-katie-mitchell-review|title=The Forbidden Zone review – poisoned by a 'higher form of killing'|last=Clapp|first=Susannah|date=5 June 2016|website=the Guardian|language=en|access-date=15 September 2018}}</ref>

Fritz Haber's other son, Ludwig Fritz Haber (1921–2004), became an eminent British economist and wrote a history of chemical warfare in World War I,''The Poisonous Cloud'' (1986).<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/HIST/awards/Dexter%20Papers/HaberDexterBioJJB.pdf | title=Lutz F. Haber (1921–2004) | publisher=University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign | access-date=11 February 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612195112/http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/HIST/awards/Dexter%20Papers/HaberDexterBioJJB.pdf | archive-date=12 June 2010 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

His daughter, Eva, lived in Kenya for many years, returning to England in the 1950s.  She died in 2015, leaving three children, five grandchildren and eight great-grandchildren.

Several members of Haber's extended family died in Nazi concentration camps, including his half-sister Frieda's daughter, Hilde Glücksmann, her husband, and their two children.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|235}}

==Between World Wars==
From 1919 to 1923 Haber continued to be involved in Germany's secret development of chemical weapons, working with Hugo Stoltzenberg, and helping both Spain and Russia in the development of chemical gases.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|169}}

From 1919 to 1925, in response to a request made by German ambassador to Japan Wilhelm Solf for Japanese support for German scholars in times of financial hardship, a Japanese businessman named Hoshi Hajime, the president of Hoshi Pharmaceutical Company donated two million Reichsmark to the Kaiser Wilhelm Society as the ‘Japan Fund’ (Hoshi-Ausschuss). Haber was asked to manage the fund, and was invited by Hoshi to Japan in 1924.  Haber offered a number of chemical licenses to Hoshi's company, but the offers were refused. The money from the Fund was used to support the work of [[Biography:Richard Willstätter|Richard Willstätter]], [[Biography:Max Planck|Max Planck]], [[Biography:Otto Hahn|Otto Hahn]], [[Biography:Leo Szilard|Leo Szilard]], and others.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sprang |first1=Christian |last2=Kato |first2=Tetsuro |title=Japanese-German Relations 1895-1945 |date=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=041545705X |page=127}}</ref>

In the 1920s, Haber searched exhaustively for a method to extract gold from sea water, and published a number of scientific papers on the subject. After years of research, he concluded that the concentration of gold dissolved in sea water was much lower than those reported by earlier researchers, and that gold extraction from sea water was uneconomic.<ref name="Goran">Morris Goran, ''The Story of Fritz Haber'', Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1967.</ref>{{rp|91–98}}

By 1931, Haber was increasingly concerned about the rise of National Socialism in Germany, and the possible safety of his friends, associates, and family. Under the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service of 7 April 1933, Jewish scientists at the Kaiser Wilhelm Society were particularly targeted. The ''Zeitschrift für die gesamte Naturwissenschaft'' ("Journal for all natural sciences") charged that "The founding of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes in Dahlem was the prelude to an influx of Jews into the physical sciences. The directorship of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical and Electrochemistry was given to the Jew, F. Haber, the nephew of the big-time Jewish profiteer Koppel". (Koppel was not actually related to Haber.)<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|277–280}} Haber was stunned by these developments, since he assumed that his conversion to Christianity and his services to the state during World War I should have made him a German patriot.<ref name=Hager />{{rp|235–236}}  Ordered to dismiss all Jewish personnel, Haber attempted to delay their departures long enough to find them somewhere to go.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|285–286}} As of 30 April 1933, Haber wrote to Bernhard Rust, the national and Prussian minister of Education, and to [[Biography:Max Planck|Max Planck]], president of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, to tender his resignation as the director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, and as a professor at the university, effective 1 October 1933. He said that although as a converted Jew he might be legally entitled to remain in his position, he no longer wished to do so.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|280}}

Haber and his son Hermann also urged that Haber's children by Charlotte Nathan, at boarding school in Germany, should leave the country.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|181}} Charlotte and the children moved to the United Kingdom around 1933 or 1934. After the war, Charlotte's children became British citizens.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|188–189}}

==Death==
[[File:Habers in Basel.JPG|thumb|The grave of Fritz Haber and Clara Haber (née Immerwahr) in the Hörnli graveyard of Basel, Switzerland]]
Haber left Dahlem in August 1933, staying briefly in Paris, Spain, and Switzerland. He was in extremely poor health during these travels, eventually suffering fatally from what was either a stroke or heart attack.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|288}}

In the meantime, some of the scientists who had been Haber's counterparts and competitors in England during World War I now helped him and others to leave Germany. Brigadier Harold Hartley, Sir William Jackson Pope and Frederick G. Donnan arranged for Haber to be officially invited to Cambridge, England.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|287–288}} There, with his assistant [[Biography:Joseph Joshua Weiss|Joseph Joshua Weiss]], Haber lived and worked for a few months.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|288}} Scientists such as [[Biography:Ernest Rutherford|Ernest Rutherford]] were less forgiving of Haber's involvement in poison gas warfare: Rutherford pointedly refused to shake hands with him.<ref name=Rutherford>{{cite web|title=Remembering Controversial Chemist Fritz Haber|url=http://www.thechemicalblog.co.uk/remembering-controversial-chemist-fritz-haber/|website=The Chemical Blog|access-date=23 January 2017|url-status=bot: unknown|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016070848/http://www.thechemicalblog.co.uk/remembering-controversial-chemist-fritz-haber/|archivedate=16 October 2014}}</ref>

In 1933, during Haber's brief sojourn in England, Chaim Weizmann offered him the directorship at the Sieff Research Institute (now the Weizmann Institute) in Rehovot, in Mandatory Palestine. He accepted, and left for the Middle East in January 1934, travelling with his half-sister, Else Haber Freyhahn.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|209, 288–289}} His ill health overpowered him and on 29 January 1934, at the age of 65, he died of heart failure, mid-journey, in a [[Place:Basel|Basel]] hotel.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|299–300}}

Following Haber's wishes, Haber and Clara's son Hermann arranged for Haber to be cremated and buried in Basel's Hörnli Cemetery on 29 September 1934, and for Clara's remains to be removed from Dahlem and re-interred with him on 27 January 1937 (see picture).<ref name=Stoltzenberg /><ref>A photograph of their gravestone in Hörnli Cemetery, Basel can also be found in the book written by Stoltzenberg.</ref>

==Estate and legacy==
Fritz Haber bequeathed his extensive private library to the Sieff Institute, where it was dedicated as the Fritz Haber Library on 29 January 1936. Hermann Haber helped to move the library and gave a speech at the dedication.<ref name=Stoltzenberg />{{rp|182}}

In 1981, the Minerva foundation of the Max Planck Society and the [[Organization:Hebrew University of Jerusalem|Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] (HUJI) established the Fritz Haber Research Center for Molecular Dynamics, based at the Institute of Chemistry of the Hebrew University. Its purpose is the promotion of Israeli-German scientific collaboration in the field of Molecular Dynamics. The Center's library is also called Fritz Haber Library, but it is not immediately clear if there is any connection to the 1936 homonymous library of the Sieff (now Weizmann) Institute.{{Citation needed|date=September 2017}}

The institute most closely associated with his work, the former Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry at Dahlem (a suburb of Berlin), was renamed Fritz Haber Institute in 1953 and is part of the Max Planck Society.

==Awards and honours==
* Foreign Honorary Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1914)<ref name="Goran" />{{rp|152}}<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterB.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|access-date=16 September 2014}}</ref>
* Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1918)<ref name=NobelBio />
* Bunsen Medal of the Bunsen Society of Berlin, with [[Biography:Carl Bosch|Carl Bosch]] (1918)<ref name=Colby>{{cite book|last1=Colby|first1=Frank|title=The New International Year Book: A Compendium of the World's Progress for the year 1918|date=1919|publisher=Dodd, Mead and Company|location=New York|page=125|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXwxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA125}}</ref>
* President of the [[Organization:German Chemical Society|German Chemical Society]] (1923)<ref name=Wisniak />{{rp|169}}
*Wilhelm Exner Medal, 1929
* Honorary Member, Société Chimique de France (1931)<ref name="Goran" />{{rp|152}}
* Honorary Member, Chemical Society of England (1931)<ref name="Goran" />{{rp|152}}
* Honorary Member, [[Organization:Society of Chemical Industry|Society of Chemical Industry]], London, (1931)<ref name="Goran" />{{rp|152}}
* Rumford Medal, American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1932)<ref name=Fegley>{{cite book|last2=Osborne|first1=Bruce|last1=Fegley|first2= Rose|title=Practical chemical thermodynamics for geoscientists|date=2008|publisher=Academic Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0122511004|page=43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8VNZNLNsTcC&pg=PA43}}</ref>
* Elected a Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences, USA (1932)<ref name=nasmember>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20001886.html|title=Fritz Haber|website=www.nasonline.org}}</ref><ref name=NationalAcademyUSA>{{cite book|title=Report of the National Academy of Sciences|date=1935|publisher=U.S. Govt. Print. Off.|location=Washington|page=11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xU4rAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA11}}</ref><ref name=NAS>{{cite web|title=Fritz Haber|url=http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20001886.html|website=National Academy of Sciences|access-date=16 September 2014}}</ref>
* Honorary Member, USSR Academy of Sciences (1932)<ref name="Goran" />{{rp|152}}
* Board of Directors, [[Organization:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]], 1929–1933; Vice-President, 1931<ref name="Stoltzenberg" />{{rp|271}}
* Goethe-Medaille für Kunst und Wissenschaft (Goethe Medal for Art and Science) from the President of Germany<ref name=Wisniak>{{cite journal|last1=Wisniak|first1=Jaime|title=Fritz Haber – A Conflict Chemist|journal=Indian Journal of History of Science|date=2002|volume=37|issue=2|pages=153–173|url=http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/2000616e_153.pdf|access-date=16 September 2014|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017015239/http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/2000616e_153.pdf|archivedate=17 October 2014}}</ref>

==Dramatizations and fictionalizations==
A fictional description of Haber's life, and in particular his longtime relationship with [[Biography:Albert Einstein|Albert Einstein]], appears in Vern Thiessen's 2003 play ''Einstein's Gift''. Thiessen describes Haber as a tragic figure who strives unsuccessfully throughout his life to evade both his Jewish ancestry and the moral implications of his scientific contributions.<ref name="Saltzman">{{cite news|last1=Saltzman|first1=Simon|title=Broadway Review: 'Einstein's Gift'|url=http://www.princetoninfo.com/index.php/component/us1more/?key=10-19-2005_p_04|access-date=18 April 2017|work=U.S. 1 Newspaper|date=19 October 2005}}</ref>

BBC Radio 4 ''Afternoon Play'' has broadcast two plays on the life of Fritz Haber. The description of the first reads:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anthonyphillips.co.uk/media/bfta.htm|title=Bread from the Air, Gold from the Sea|publisher=Archives of Anthony Phillips (who composed the music)|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202212534/http://www.anthonyphillips.co.uk/media/bfta.htm|archivedate=2 February 2009}}</ref> from the Diversity Website:

{{quote|Bread from the Air, Gold from the Sea'' as another chemical story (R4, 1415, 16 Feb 01). Fritz Haber found a way of making nitrogen compounds from the air. They have two main uses: fertilizers and explosives. His process enabled Germany to produce vast quantities of armaments. (The second part of the title refers to a process for obtaining gold from sea water. It worked, but didn't pay.) There can be few figures with a more interesting life than Haber, from a biographer's point of view. He made German agriculture independent of Chilean [[Chemistry:Sodium nitrate|saltpetre]] during the Great War. He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry, yet there were moves to strip him of the award because of his work on gas warfare. He pointed out, rightly, that most of Nobel's money had come from armaments and the pursuit of war. After Hitler's rise to power, the government forced Haber to resign from his professorship and research jobs because he was Jewish.}}

The second play was titled ''The Greater Good'' and was first broadcast on 23 October 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00f06bw|title=Afternoon Play, The Greater Good|publisher=BBC}}</ref> It was directed by Celia de Wolff and written by Justin Hopper, and starred Anton Lesser as Haber. It explored his work on [[Social:Chemical warfare|chemical warfare]] during [[Social:World War I|World War I]] and the strain it put on his wife Clara (Lesley Sharp), concluding with her suicide and its cover-up by the authorities.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Greater Good|url=http://justinhopper.weebly.com/radio.html|website=Justin Hopper – Writer and Script Consultant|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419100638/http://justinhopper.weebly.com/radio.html|archivedate=19 April 2017}}</ref> Other cast included Dan Starkey as Haber's research associate Otto Sackur, Stephen Critchlow as Colonel Peterson, Conor Tottenham as Haber's son Hermann, Malcolm Tierney as General Falkenhayn and Janice Acquah as Zinaide.

In 2008, a short film titled ''Haber'' depicted Fritz Haber's decision to embark on the gas warfare program and his relationship with his wife.<ref name="Meyer">{{cite journal|last1=Meyer|first1=Michal|title=Feeding a War (Interview with Daniel Ragussis)|journal=Chemical Heritage Magazine|date=Spring 2010|volume=28|issue=1|pages=40–41|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/feeding-a-war|accessdate=20 March 2018}}</ref> The film was written and directed by Daniel Ragussis.<ref>{{IMDb title|title=Haber|id=1258199|access-date=18 September 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://scienceandfilm.org/articles/2762/daniel-ragussis-short-film-haber|title=Sloan Science & Film|website=scienceandfilm.org|access-date=30 August 2016}}</ref>

In November 2008, Haber was again played by Anton Lesser in ''Einstein and Eddington''.<ref>{{IMDb title|title=Einstein and Eddington|id=0995036| access-date=18 September 2008}}</ref>

In January 2012, ''Radiolab'' aired a segment on Haber, including the invention of the Haber Process, the Second Battle of Ypres, his involvement with Zyklon A, and the death of his wife, Clara.<ref name=radiolab>{{cite web | title=The Bad Show | url=http://www.radiolab.org/2012/jan/09/ | work=Radiolab| year=2012 | access-date=12 January 2012}}</ref>

In December 2013, Haber was the subject of a BBC World Service radio programme: "Why has one of the world's most important scientists been forgotten?".<ref name=BBC2013>{{cite news|last1=Williams|first1=Mike|title=Nitrogen: Forgetting Fritz|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p01nbn85|access-date=16 September 2014|work=BBC World News|date=27 December 2013}}</ref>

His and his wife's life, including their relationship with the Einsteins, and Haber's wife's suicide, are featured prominently in the novel ''A Reunion of Ghosts'' by Judith Claire Mitchell. The characters are named Lenz and Iris Alter.<ref name="Benjamin">{{cite news|last1=Benjamin|first1=Chloe|title=The Project is Nothing, The Process is Everything: An Interview with Judith Claire Mitchell|work=Fiction Writers Review|date=30 March 2015|url=http://fictionwritersreview.com/interview/the-project-is-nothing-the-process-is-everything-an-interview-with-judith-claire-mitchell/|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

Haber's life and relationship to Albert Einstein was portrayed in ''Genius'' which aired on National Geographic Channel from 25 April to 27 June 2017.<ref name="Genius Episode 7: Scientists at war">{{cite web | title=Scientists at war | url=http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/genius/videos/scientists-at-war/|access-date=12 July 2017|work=National Geographic|date=June 2017}}</ref>

==See also==
* Nobel laureates in Chemistry
* List of Jewish Nobel laureates

==References==
{{Reflist|24em}}

==Further reading==
{{Library resources box|by=yes|onlinebooksby=yes|viaf=37018070}}

* Albarelli JR., H. P.: ''A Terrible Mistake: The Murder of Frank Olson and the CIA's Secret Cold War Experiments'' – Trine Day LLC, 1st ed., 2009, {{ISBN|0-9777953-7-3}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Bernstein | first1 = Barton J. | year = 1987 | title = Birth of the U.S. biological warfare program | url = | journal = Scientific American | volume = 256 | issue = 6| pages = 116–121 | doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0687-116| pmid = 3296173 | bibcode = 1987SciAm.256f.116B}}
* Charles, Daniel: ''Master mind: The Rise and Fall of Fritz Haber, the Nobel Laureate Who Launched the Age of Chemical Warfare'' (New York: Ecco, 2005), {{ISBN|0-06-056272-2}}.
* Dunikowska, Magda; Turko, Ludwik 2011 "Fritz Haber: The Damned Scientist". "Angew. Chem. Int. Ed." 50: 10050–10062
* Geissler, Erhard: ''Biologische Waffen, nicht in Hitlers Arsenalen. Biologische und Toxin-Kampfmittel in Deutschland von 1915–1945''. LIT-Verlag, Berlin-Hamburg-Münster, 2nd ed., 1999. {{ISBN|3-8258-2955-3}}.
* Geissler, Erhard: "Biological warfare activities in Germany 1923–1945". In: Geissler, Erhard and Moon, John Ellis van Courtland, eds., ''Biological warfare from the Middle Ages to 1945''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, {{ISBN|0-19-829579-0}}.
* Hager, Thomas: ''The Alchemy of Air: A Jewish Genius, a Doomed Tycoon, and the Scientific Discovery That Fed the World but Fueled the Rise of Hitler'' (2008) {{ISBN|978-0-307-35178-4}}.
* Maddrell, Paul: ''Spying on Science: Western Intelligence in Divided Germany 1945–1961''. Oxford University Press, 2006, {{ISBN|0-19-926750-2}}.
* {{cite book|first=Vaclav |last=Smil |title=Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G9FljcEASycC|year=2004|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-69313-4}}
* Stern, Fritz: "Together and Apart: Fritz Haber and Albert Einstein", in ''Einstein's German World''. Princeton University Press, 2001
* Stoltzenberg, Dietrich: ''Fritz Haber: Chemist, Nobel Laureate, German, Jew: A Biography'' (Chemical Heritage Foundation, 2005), {{ISBN|0-941901-24-6}}.

==External links==
* {{cite web|title=Fritz Haber|url=http://www.nndb.com/people/884/000092608/|website=NNDB tracking the entire world|access-date=8 September 2014}}
* {{Nobelprize}} including the Nobel Lecture, June 2, 1920 ''The Synthesis of Ammonia from Its Elements''
* [http://www.haberfilm.com/ ''HABER''] – A biographical film about Fritz Haber
* [http://www.danielcharles.us/haberphotos.html Photographs of Fritz Haber's life]
* [http://www.fhi-berlin.mpg.de/history/Friedrich_HaberArticle.pdf A short biography of Fritz Haber], by Bretislav Friedrich
* [http://www.britannica.com/nobelprize/article-9038696 Nobel Prizes – Fritz Haber] ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 
* [http://www.radiolab.org/2012/jan/09/how-do-you-solve-problem-fritz-haber/ "How do you solve a problem like Fritz Haber"] on NPR's ''Radiolab''
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-13015210 Fritz Haber: Jewish chemist whose work led to Zyklon B]
* [http://web.nli.org.il/sites/NLI/English/collections/personalsites/Israel-Germany/World-War-2/Pages/Haber-Farkas.aspx Termination of Employment Letter to Ladislaus Farkas from Fritz Haber]
* {{PM20|FID=pe/006843}}
* [https://www.chemistryworld.com/iypt/chlorine-nitrogen-and-the-legacies-of-fritz-haber/3010838.article chemistry world chlorine nitrogen and the legacies of fritz haber]

{{Nobel Prize in Chemistry|state=collapsed}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Haber, Fritz}}
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Chemistry]]
[[Category:Chemical warfare]]

{{Sourceattribution|Fritz Haber|1}}