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{{short description|Food consumed by astronauts in outer space}}
[[File:ISSSpaceFoodOnATray.jpg|thumb|An example of food eaten on the International Space Station. Note the use of magnets, springs, and Velcro to hold the cutlery and food packets to the tray.]]
[[File:497530main jsc2008e038822 Skylab Trayhi full.jpg|thumb|Food and tray from the Skylab era (1973–74)]]
'''Space food''' is a type of food product created and [[Engineering:Food processing|processed]] for consumption by [[Astronaut|astronaut]]s during missions to [[Astronomy:Outer space|outer space]]. Such food has specific requirements to provide a balanced diet and adequate nutrition for individuals working in space while being easy and safe to store, prepare and consume in the machinery-filled [[Physics:Weightlessness|weightless]] environments of crewed [[Engineering:Spacecraft|spacecraft]]. Space food is commonly [[Engineering:Freeze-drying|freeze-dried]] to minimize weight and ensure long shelf life.

In recent years, space food has been used by various nations engaging in space programs as a way to share and show off their [[Social:Cultural identity|cultural identity]] and facilitate [[Social:Intercultural communication|intercultural communication]]. Although astronauts consume a wide variety of foods and beverages in space, the initial idea from The Man in Space Committee of the Space Science Board in 1963 was to supply astronauts with a formula diet that would provide all the needed vitamins and nutrients.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.nap.edu/catalog/12419/working-group-on-nutrition-and-feeding-problems |title=Working Group on Nutrition and Feeding Problems |publisher=The National Academies Press |date=April 1963 |doi=10.17226/12419|isbn=978-0-309-12383-9 }}</ref>

== Types ==
There are several classifications of space food, as follows:<ref name="FFSF">{{cite web|author=NASA|date=7 April 2002|title=Food For Space Flight|url=http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/factsheets/food.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000816185440/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/factsheets/food.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 August 2000|access-date=12 December 2006|work=Fact Sheet Library}}</ref><ref name="NASA HRP">{{cite book|author=Perchonok, M|url=http://humanresearchroadmap.nasa.gov/evidence/reports/Food.pdf|title=Human health and performance risks of space exploration missions : evidence reviewed by the NASA Human Research Program|author2=Douglas, G|author3=Cooper, M|date=2009|publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|isbn=978-0160846342|editor=McPhee, J|location=Johnson Space Center, Houston|pages=4–5|chapter=Risk of Performance Decrement and Crew Illness Due to an Inadequate Food System|editor2=Charles, J}}</ref>
* ''Beverages (B)'' - Freeze dried drink mixes (coffee or tea) or flavored drinks (lemonade or orange drink) are provided in vacuum sealed beverage pouches. Coffee and tea may have powdered cream and/or sugar added depending on personal taste preferences. Empty beverage pouches are provided for drinking water.
* ''Fresh Foods (FF)'' - Fresh fruits, vegetables, and tortillas delivered by resupply missions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liang |first1=Shu |last2=Rivera-Osorio |first2=Karolina |last3=Burgess |first3=Alexandra J. |last4=Kumssa |first4=Diriba B. |last5=Escribà-Gelonch |first5=Marc |last6=Fisk |first6=Ian |last7=Knowling |first7=Matthew |last8=Stekel |first8=Dov |last9=Hessel |first9=Volker |title=Modeling of Space Crop-Based Dishes for Optimal Nutrient Delivery to Astronauts and Beyond on Earth |journal=ACS Food Science & Technology |date=2023 |doi=10.1021/acsfoodscitech.3c00396}}</ref> These foods spoil quickly and need to be eaten within the first two days of the package's arrival to the ISS to prevent spoilage. These foods are provided as psychological support for astronauts who may not return home for extended periods of time.
* ''Irradiated (I) Meat'' - Beef steak that is [[Physics:Food irradiation|sterilized with ionizing radiation]] to keep the food from spoiling. NASA has dispensation from the U.S. [[Organization:Food and Drug Administration|Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) to use this type of food sterilization.
* ''[[Medicine:Intermediate moisture food|Intermediate Moisture]] (IM)'' - Foods that have some moisture but not enough to cause immediate spoilage. Examples include sausage and beef jerky.
* ''Natural Form (NF)'' - Commercially available, shelf-stable foods such as [[Biology:Nut (fruit)|nut]]s, cookies, and granola bars that are ready to eat.
* ''Rehydratable (R) Foods'' - Foods that have been dehydrated by various technologies (such as drying with heat, osmotic drying, and freeze drying) and allowed to rehydrate in hot water prior to consumption. Reducing the water content reduces the ability of microorganisms to thrive.
* ''Thermostabilized (T)'' - Also known as the retort process, this process heats foods to destroy [[Biology:Pathogen|pathogen]]s, [[Biology:Microorganism|microorganism]]s, and [[Biology:Enzyme|enzyme]]s that may cause spoilage.
* ''Extended shelf-life bread products'' - Scones, waffles, and rolls specially formulated to have a shelf life of up to 18 months.

More common staples and condiments do not have a classification and are known simply by the item name.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

==Processing==
[[File:Russian space food.jpg|thumb|Russian space food]]

Designing food for consumption in space is an often difficult process. Foods must meet a number of criteria to be considered fit for space. Food must be [[Biology:Physiology|physiologically]] appropriate, in that it must be nutritious, easily digestible, and palatable. Secondly, the food must be engineered for consumption in a zero-gravity environment. As such, the food must be light, well packaged, fast to serve, and require minimal cleaning up. Finally, foods require a minimum of energy expenditure throughout their use; they must store well, open easily, and leave little waste behind (foods that tend to leave crumbs, for example, are ill-suited for space).{{cn|date=August 2023}}

Carbonated drinks have been tried in space but are not favored due to changes in belching caused by microgravity. Without gravity to separate the liquid and gas in the stomach, burping results in a kind of vomiting called "wet burping".<ref name=KloerisB>{{cite web |url=http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/people/journals/space/kloeris/05-01-01.html |title=Eating on the ISS |series=Field Journal |publisher=NASA |first=Vickie |last=Kloeris |date=1 May 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060930025908/http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/people/journals/space/kloeris/05-01-01.html |archive-date=30 September 2006 |url-status=dead |quote=Because there is no gravity, the contents of your stomach float and tend to stay at the top of your stomach, under the rib cage and close to the valve at the top of your stomach. Because this valve isn't a complete closure (just a muscle that works with gravity), if you burp, it becomes a wet burp from the contents in your stomach.}}</ref> [[Engineering:Coca-Cola|Coca-Cola]] and Pepsi were first carried on [[Astronomy:STS-51-F|STS-51-F]] in 1985. Coca-Cola has flown on subsequent missions in a specially designed dispenser that utilizes [[Organization:BioServe Space Technologies|BioServe Space Technologies]] hardware used for biochemical experiments. Space Station Mir carried cans of Pepsi in 1996.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

Beer has also been developed that counteracts the reduction of taste and smell reception in space and reduces the possibility of wet burps in microgravity. Produced by Vostok 4-Pines Stout, a parabolic flight experiment validated that the reduced carbonation recipe met the criteria intended for space.<ref name=":4">{{cite news |url=https://www.news.com.au/technology/vostok-beer-is-a-sturdy-stout-you-can-swig-in-space/news-story/d673d105eb1b255738de0fbbed316059 |title=How does space beer taste? It's out of this world... |work=News.com.au |publisher=News Corp Australia |first=Claire |last=Connelly |date=1 March 2011}}</ref> Barley harvested from crops grown for several generations in space has also been brought back to Earth to produce beer. While not a space food (it used the same high carbonation 'Earth' recipe), the study did demonstrate that ingredients grown in space are safe for production.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.com/2009/12/barley-space-space-beer/ |title=Barley + Space = Space Beer! |magazine=Wired |first=Betsy |last=Mason |date=8 December 2009}}</ref>

Space bread has proved elusive because of a variety of challenges. By 2012 a method was suggested where the dough is leavened by dissolved {{chem2|CO2}} (as opposed to yeast) and cooked by a low-temperature process, which could allow for fresh bread to be baked from bulk ingredients on future spaceflights.<ref name=daves>{{cite news |url=https://newatlas.com/spacebread/22768/ |title=How to bake bread in space |work=New Atlas |first=David |last=Szondy |date=3 June 2012 |access-date=9 May 2018}}</ref>

==Packaging==
[[File:Space shuttle eating tray.jpg|thumb|left|Food tray used aboard the Space Shuttles]]
The primary purpose of packaging space food is preserving and containing the food. However, the packaging must also be light-weight, easy to dispose of and useful in the preparation of the food for consumption. The packaging also includes a bar-coded label, which allows for the tracking of an astronaut's diet. The labels also specify the food's preparation instructions in both [[Social:English language|English]] and [[Social:Russian language|Russian]].<ref name=KloerisB />

Many foods from the [[Company:Roscosmos|Russian space program]] are packaged in [[Engineering:Tin can|can]]s and tins.<ref name=bourlandC>Bourland, Charles (2001) ''Packaging foods for flight''— NASA FTCSC News, July 2001</ref> These are heated through [[Physics:Joule heating|electro-resistive (ohmic)]] methods, opened with a can-opener, and the food inside consumed directly. Russian soups are hydrated and consumed directly from their packages.<ref name="luEd">Lu, Edward (2003) ''Expedition 7: Eating at Cafe ISS'', Greetings Earthlings:Ed's musings from space, [https://web.archive.org/web/20030713125012/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/crew/exp7/luletters/lu_letter3.html]</ref>

NASA space foods are packaged in [[Engineering:Retort pouch|retort pouch]]es<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221761772 |title=Assessment of the Long‐Term Stability of Retort Pouch Foods to Support Extended Duration Spaceflight |journal=Journal of Food Science |first1=Patricia M. |last1=Catauro |first2=Michele H. |last2=Perchonok |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=S29–S39 |date=January 2012 |doi=10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02445.x |pmid=22260129}}</ref> or employ freeze drying.<ref name=bourlandC /> They are also packaged in sealed containers which fit into trays to keep them in place. The trays include straps on the underside, allowing astronauts to attach the tray to an anchor point such as their legs or a wall surface and include clips for retaining a beverage pouch or utensils in the microgravity environment.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

==Cooking in space==
The [[Astronomy:International Space Station|International Space Station]] is fitted with rehydration chambers and food warmers to prepare the packaged food before consumption.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://gizmodo.com/what-happens-when-you-cook-french-fries-in-space-1566973977 |title=A Complete Guide to Cooking in Space |website=GIZMODO |date=24 April 2014 |first=Ria |last=Misra }}</ref> The first [[Engineering:Galley (kitchen)|galley]] on ISS was located in the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS), containing a hydration system for reheating food, and a food warmer for [[Engineering:Canning|canned food]]. The United States developed the second food warmer system in a briefcase-like shape to provide the reheating function for packet-style food items. A second galley was added to the ''Unity'' module due to the crew size increase. Combined dinners were rare, as Russian, [[Engineering:Space Shuttle|Space Shuttle]], and other ISS astronauts were often eating in their own segments with different schedules.<ref>{{cite web |last=C. Anderson |first=Clayton |date=20 May 2019 |title=What Is the Kitchen Like on the International Space Station? |url=https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/583166/kitchen-on-iss-international-space-station |website=Mental Floss}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition18/journal_sandra_magnus_7.html |title=Food and Cooking in Space |website=NASA }}</ref>

On Tiangong Space Station, the kitchen is located in the ''Tianhe'' core module, along with living quarters and entertainment systems.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.scmp.com/yp/discover/news/asia/article/3131642/china-launches-tianhe-future-living-quarters-space-station |title=China launches Tianhe, future living quarters for space station planned for 2022 |agency=Reuters |website=www.scmp.com |date=29 April 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/29/china-launches-key-module-of-space-station-planned-for-2022-.html |title=China launches key module of space station planned for 2022, state media reports |website=CNBC |date=29 April 2021 |agency=Reuters }}</ref> Huang Weifen, the chief astronaut trainer of China Manned Space Agency (CMSA), explained that the station is equipped with a small kitchen table for food preparation and the first-ever [[Physics:Microwave oven|microwave oven]] in spaceflight<ref>{{cite web|url=https://m.21jingji.com/article/20210621/herald/6f5f6c26efbfe00d5d27457a84d1a739_zaker.html |title=神舟十二号里的"广东制造"：首台航天微波炉被送入太空，中国太空笔实现新突破 |website=21 jingji |language=Chinese |date=21 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://spacecentre.co.uk/blog-post/tiangong-space-station/ |title= Building the Tiangong Space Station |website=Space Centre |date= 26 July 2022 |first= Dhara |last=Patel }}</ref> so that astronauts can "always have hot food whenever they need."<ref name="tiangong_food1">{{cite web|url=https://www.space.com/china-astronauts-space-food-menu-shenzhou-12 |title=Chinese astronauts enjoying 120 dishes during space station stay |website=Space.com |date=26 June 2021|first=Andrew |last=Jones }}</ref><ref name="tiangong_food2">{{cite web|url=https://www.space.com/china-space-station-life-panda-cartoon |title=Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Panda: Adorable cartoon shows astronaut life on Chinese space station|website=Space.com |date=28 June 2021|first=Elizabeth |last=Howell }}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:ISSSpaceFoodsAssortment.jpg|thumb|Assortment of foods served aboard the ISS.]] [[File:AstronautsEatingBurgers.jpg|thumb|right|Astronauts making and eating hamburgers on board the ISS in 2002]]

Early space food was primarily composed of bite-sized cubes, freeze-dried powders, and thick liquids stuffed in aluminum tubes. First used on the 3rd [[Astronomy:Project Mercury|Mercury]] mission in 1962, US astronaut [[Biography:John Glenn|John Glenn]] was the first to eat directly from an aluminum tube, specifically applesauce.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Perchonok |first=Michele |title=NASA food systems: Past, present, and future |publisher=Legacy CDMS: Elsevier Inc |year=2002 |pages=913 |language=English}}</ref> However the tubes were eventually discontinued as their design did not allow the food to be smelled or seen, and the texture also posed limitations on the variety of food that could be made available.<ref name=":1" /> Freeze-dried powders that could be re-hydrated were also available, as well as high-calorie bite sized cubes of food. These solutions had their own challenges, however over time, the powders were made easier to re-freeze, and the cubes were coated in gelatin to prevent crumbling on the equipment.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Perchonok |first=Michele |title=NASA food systems: Past, present, and future |publisher=Legacy CDMS: Elsevier Inc |year=2002 |pages=913–914 |language=English}}</ref> With the introduction of the "spoon bowl," on the Apollo 8 mission, astronauts were able to open the contents of the package and eat the simple meal with a spoon.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/postsecondary/features/F_Food_for_Space_Flight.html |title=NASA - Food for Space Flight |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=26 February 2004 |website=NASA.gov |publisher=NASA |access-date=3 March 2020}}</ref>

For lunch on [[Astronomy:Vostok 1|Vostok 1]] (1961), [[Biography:Yuri Gagarin|Yuri Gagarin]] ate from three {{cvt|160|g}} toothpaste-type tubes, two of which contained servings of puréed meat and one which contained chocolate sauce{{cn|date=August 2023}}.

In August 1961, Soviet Cosmonaut [[Biography:Gherman Titov|Gherman Titov]] became the first human to experience space sickness on [[Astronomy:Vostok 2|Vostok 2]]; he holds the record for being the first person to vomit in space.<ref name="Guinness2012">{{cite book |title=Guinness World Records 2013 |publisher=Guinness World Records |editor-first=Craig |editor-last=Glenday |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781904994879/page/27 27] |date=2012 |isbn=9781904994879 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781904994879/page/27 }}</ref> This event "heralded the need for space flight nutrition."<ref name="Lane2002">{{cite journal |title=History of nutrition in space flight |journal=Nutrition |first1=Helen W. |last1=Lane |first2=Daniel L. |last2=Feeback |volume=18 |issue=10 |pages=797–804 |date=October 2002 |doi=10.1016/S0899-9007(02)00946-2 |pmid=12361770 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1260127}}</ref>

[[Biography:John Glenn|John Glenn]], as the first American to orbit Earth in 1962, was to experiment with eating in weightless conditions. Some experts had been concerned that weightlessness would impair swallowing. Glenn experienced no such difficulties, and it was determined that microgravity did not affect the natural [[Biology:Swallowing|swallowing]] process, which is enabled by the [[Biology:Peristalsis|peristalsis]] of the [[Biology:Esophagus|esophagus]].{{cn|date=August 2023}}

Astronauts in later [[Astronomy:Project Mercury|Mercury missions]] (1959–1963) disliked the food that was provided. They ate bite-sized cubes, freeze-dried powders, and tubes of semiliquids. The astronauts found it unappetizing, experienced difficulties in rehydrating the freeze-dried foods, and did not like having to squeeze tubes or collect crumbs.<ref name=FFSF/> Prior to the mission, the astronauts were also fed ''low residual'' launch-day breakfasts to reduce the chances that they would defecate in flight.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.americaspace.com/?p=18434 |title="Why Postpone a Success?" The Days Before Freedom 7 |first=Ben |last=Evans |date=7 May 2012 |publisher=AmericaSpace, LLC}}</ref>

===Project Gemini and Apollo (1965–1975)===
[[File:Frank J. Roberts demonstrating how astronauts eat (cropped).jpg|thumb|Frank J. Roberts, Apollo engineer demonstrating how astronauts eat to ARCS treasurer, Marion DeFore, Calif., 1965]]

Several of the food issues from the Mercury missions were addressed for the later [[Astronomy:Project Gemini|Gemini missions]] (1965–1966). Tubes (often heavier than the foods they contained) were abandoned, gelatin coatings helped to prevent bite-sized cubes from crumbling, and simpler rehydration methods were developed. The menus were also expanded to include items such as shrimp cocktail, chicken and vegetables, toast squares, butterscotch pudding, and apple juice.<ref name=FFSF/>

The crew of [[Astronomy:Gemini 3|Gemini 3]] sneaked a corned beef sandwich on their spaceflight. Mission Commander Gus Grissom loved corned beef sandwiches, so Pilot John Young brought one along, having been encouraged by fellow astronaut Walter Schirra. However, Young was supposed to eat only approved food, and Grissom was not supposed to eat anything. Floating pieces of bread posed a potential problem, causing Grissom to put the sandwich away (although he did enjoy it)<ref>[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/mission_trans/GT03_TEC.PDF Voice Transcript of GT-3], p. 45 NASA.gov</ref> and the astronauts were mildly rebuked by [[Organization:NASA|NASA]] for the act. A congressional hearing was called, forcing NASA deputy administrator George Mueller to promise no repeats. NASA employed renewed vigilance regarding what astronauts brought along on future missions.<ref>[https://history.nasa.gov/Apollo204/zorn/grissom.htm Detailed Biographies of Apollo I Crew - Gus Grissom] NASA.gov</ref><ref>[http://www.spaceline.org/flightchron/gemini3.html Gemini III Fact Sheet] Spaceline.org</ref><ref>De Groot, Gerard. ''Dark Side of the Moon: The Magnificent Madness of the American Lunar Quest''. (NYU Press, 2006), p.190</ref>

Prior to the [[Astronomy:Apollo program|Apollo program]] (1968–1975), early space food development was conducted at the US Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine and the Natick Army Labs.<ref name="Lane2002"/> The variety of food options continued to expand for the [[Astronomy:List of Apollo missions|Apollo missions]]. The new availability of hot water made rehydrating freeze-dried foods simpler and produced a more appetizing result. This was an important aspect during the Apollo missions, as astronauts would be spending longer amounts of time in space. Appetising foods would increase the crew's chances of maintaining proper nutrition.<ref name=":1" /> The "spoon-bowl" allowed more normal eating practices. Food could be kept in special plastic zip-closure containers, and moisture allowed the food to stick to a spoon.<ref name=FFSF/> However, the lack of taste was an issue at that time. In order not to over-stimulate the intestinal system, the food was prepared using few spices. Thus astronauts were always looking for something that had a little more taste. [[Engineering:Apollo 17|Apollo 17]] moonwalker Harrison Schmitt{{’}}s favorites were the bacon squares. Buzz Aldrin enjoyed the shrimps. Paul Weitz went for the ice cream. <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Häuplik‐Meusburger|first=Sandra|date=2014|title=Astronauts Orbiting on Their Stomachs: The Needs to Design for the Consumption and Production of Food in Space|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ad.1841|journal=Architectural Design|language=en|volume=84|issue=6|pages=114–117|doi=10.1002/ad.1841|issn=1554-2769}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Häuplik-Meusburger|first=Sandra|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-7091-0667-9|title=Architecture for Astronauts|date=2011|publisher=Springer Vienna|isbn=978-3-7091-0666-2|location=Vienna|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-7091-0667-9}}</ref> In the later Apollo missions, foods were improved to make use of retort pouches and cans. This allowed the food to be thermally stabilised allowing it be stored for longer durations.<ref name=":1" />

===Apollo 11 (1969)===
[[Biography:Buzz Aldrin|Buzz Aldrin]] partook of the Presbyterian Christian sacrament of Holy Communion on the Moon. It had been consecrated by his pastor, the Rev. Dean Woodruff, two weeks prior to the space mission.<ref name="Alrdin1969">{{cite news |url=https://www.guideposts.org/better-living/life-advice/finding-life-purpose/guideposts-classics-buzz-aldrin-on-communion-in-space |title=Guideposts Classics: Buzz Aldrin on Communion in Space |publisher=Guideposts |first=Buzz |last=Aldrin |date=14 July 2014 |access-date=23 March 2018}}</ref>
{{quotation|"I poured the wine into the chalice our church had given me. In the one-sixth gravity of the moon, the wine curled slowly and gracefully up the side of the cup. It was interesting to think that the very first liquid ever poured on the moon, and the first food eaten there, were communion elements." —[[Biography:Buzz Aldrin|Buzz Aldrin]]<ref name="Alrdin1969"/>|author=|title=|source=}}
Aldrin received the Eucharist in the same hour that his local church did on that Sunday Sabbath and he later stated that "I sensed especially strongly my unity with our church back home, and with the Church everywhere".<ref name="Alrdin1969"/>

===Skylab (1973–1974)===
[[File:S73-20236.jpg|thumb|Skylab 2 crew eats food during ground training]]

Larger living areas on the [[Engineering:Skylab|Skylab]] space station (1973–1974) allowed for an on-board refrigerator and freezer.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Perchonok |first=Michele |title=NASA Food Systems: Past, Present and Future |publisher=Legacy CDMS: Elsevier Inc |year=2002 |pages=914 |language=English}}</ref> This allowed perishable and frozen items to be stored, making microgravity the primary obstacle of future missions.<ref name="livingandworking">Benson, Charles Dunlap and William David Compton. ''[https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4208/contents.htm Living and Working in Space: A History of Skylab]''. NASA publication SP-4208.</ref>{{rp|142–144}} When Skylab's solar panels were damaged during its launch and the station had to rely on minimal power from the [[Astronomy:Apollo Telescope Mount|Apollo Telescope Mount]] until [[Engineering:Skylab 2|Skylab 2]] crewmembers performed repairs, the refrigerator and freezer were among the systems that Mission Control kept operational. The Orbital Work Shop (OWS) module had a specially designed wardroom dedicated for food preparation and dining (see image on the right).{{cn|date=August 2023}}

A dining table was also available, and was designed to avoid hierarchical positions through its triangular layout and to support social cohesion. The table and chairs were fastened to the floor and fitted with foot and thigh restraints, allowing for a more normal eating experience. The trays used could warm the food, and had magnets to hold eating utensils and scissors used for opening food containers.<ref name="livingandworking" />{{rp|142–144}}<ref name="belew1977">Belew, Leland. (editor) ''[https://history.nasa.gov/SP-400/contents.htm Skylab, Our First Space Station]'' NASA publication SP-400.</ref>{{rp|29}} It could accommodate all three crew members at the same time using a variety of microgravity restraints.<ref>{{cite book|last=David.|first=Compton, W.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/676697845|title=Living and working in space : a history of Skylab|year=1983 |origyear=i.e. 1984|publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Branch, National Aeronautics and Space Administration|oclc=676697845}}</ref> As a result of the improved eating arrangement, astronauts aboard Skylab maintained some of the best nutritional intake recorded.<ref name=":2" />

Menus included 72 items; for the first time about 15% was frozen. Shrimp cocktail and butter cookies were consistent favorites; Lobster Newberg, fresh bread,{{r|bourland20060407}} processed meat products, and [[Engineering:Ice cream|ice cream]] were among other choices.<ref name=":2" /> The food was similar to that used for Apollo, but were sealed in cans for preservation.{{r|bourland20060407}} The crew found it to be better than that of Apollo but still unsatisfying, partially due to food tasting different in space than on Earth.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|292–293,308}} The frozen foods were the most popular, and they enjoyed spicy foods<ref name="belew1977"/>{{rp|130}} due to sinus congestion from weightlessness dulling their senses of taste and smell.<ref name="livingandworking"/>{{rp|292–293,308}} Weightlessness also complicated the process of both eating and cleaning up, with crews spending up to 90 minutes a day on housekeeping.<ref name="time19730625">"[https://archive.today/20130104224215/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,907462,00.html Living It Up in Space]" ''Time'', 25 June 1973.</ref>

At the request of astronauts, NASA included cream sherry for one Skylab mission and packaged some for testing on a [[Astronomy:Reduced-gravity aircraft|reduced-gravity aircraft]]. In microgravity, smells quickly permeate the environment and the agency found that the sherry triggered the gag reflex. Concern over public reaction to taking alcohol into space led NASA to abandon its plans. The astronauts instead drank the purchased supply while consuming their pre-mission special diet.<ref name=bourland20060407>{{cite web |url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/BourlandCT/BourlandCT_4-7-06.htm |title=Edited Oral History Transcript - Charles T. Bourland |first=Jennifer |last=Ross-Nazzal |date=7 April 2006 |publisher=NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project}}</ref>

The [[Astronaut|astronaut]]s of the [[Engineering:Apollo–Soyuz Test Project|Apollo–Soyuz Test Project]] (1975) received samples of Soviet space food when the combined crew dined together. Among the foods provided by Soyuz 19 were [[Engineering:Canning|canned]] beef tongue, packaged Riga bread, tubes of borscht (beet soup), and caviar. The borscht was labeled "vodka".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/NewsReleases/2000/00-53.html |title=Former Astronaut Recalls Historic Apollo-Soyuz Mission |publisher=NASA |date=21 July 2000 |access-date=2 November 2019 |id=Release 00-53}}</ref>

=== Salyut (1971–1986) ===
The Soviet Union's [[Engineering:Salyut programme|Salyut]] stations were the first to be structured in zones for different activities, including a table for work and having dinner together. By the mid-1970s, cosmonauts and astronauts on the Russian Salyut space research stations were able to eat fresh food such as tomatoes, coriander, and cucumbers from their orbital space gardens, and some even had the possibility of a sip of wine or vodka with their food.<ref name=":0" /> The pioneering Oasis greenhouse on Salyut 1 (launched in April 1971) led to the implementation of plant-growing facilities on the later Salyut stations, on Mir and on the International Space Station, and the first space-grown vegetables were reportedly eaten in 1975 onboard Salyut 4.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Häuplik-Meusburger|first1=Sandra|last2=Peldszus|first2=Regina|last3=Holzgethan|first3=Verena|date=2011|title=Greenhouse design integration benefits for extended spaceflight|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2010.07.008|journal=Acta Astronautica|volume=68|issue=1–2|pages=85–90|doi=10.1016/j.actaastro.2010.07.008|bibcode=2011AcAau..68...85H |issn=0094-5765}}</ref>

===Interkosmos (1978–1988)===
[[File:Bulgarian space food.jpg|thumb|Bulgarian space food]]

As part of the [[Astronomy:Interkosmos|Interkosmos]] space program, allies of the Soviet Union, including the People's Republic of Bulgaria, actively participated in the research and deployment of space technologies from the 1960s until the end of communism in 1989-1990 in the Eastern Bloc. The Institute of Cryobiology and Lyophilization (now the Institute of Cryobiology and Food Technology), founded in 1973 as a part of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, produced space food for the purposes of the program.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ikht.bg/pages_eng/about_eng.html |title=About Us |publisher=Institute of Cryobiology and Food Technology |access-date=15 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MG__CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA249 |title=Interkosmos: The Eastern Bloc's Early Space Program |publisher=Springer-Praxis |first1=Colin |last1=Burgess |first2=Bert |last2=Vis |page=249 |date=2016 |isbn=978-3-319-24161-6 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-24163-0|bibcode=2016iebe.book.....B }}</ref> The menu includes traditional Bulgarian dishes such as tarator, sarma, musaka, lyutenitza, kiselo mlyako, dried vegetables and fruits, etc.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.24chasa.bg/Article/850353 |title=В Космоса: яденето българско, сексът руски |trans-title=In the Cosmos: Eating Bulgarian, Russian Sex |website=24chasa.bg |language=bg |first=Yaroslava |last=Prohazkova |date=9 April 2011 |access-date=15 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://delo.bg/world/balgariya-e-treta-v-sveta-po-proizvodstvo-na-hrana-za-kosmonavti/ |title=У нас е първата оранжерия за космическа храна в света |trans-title=In our country is the first greenhouse for space food in the world |website=Delo.bg |language=bg |first=Silvia |last=Vassileva |date=19 April 2015 |access-date=15 June 2017}}</ref>

==Today==
===International Space Station===
[[File:LED panel and plants.jpg|thumb|Red LED lights illuminate potato plants in a NASA study on growing food in space]]
[[File:JAXA Space food Ramen (Soy sauce).jpg|thumb|Rehydratable Shōyu flavored Japanese ramen from JAXA.]]
NASA's aim for food on the ISS is to make the experience as close as possible to that of Earth, and there aims to provide more acceptable and palatable foods.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Perchonok |first=Michele |title=NASA Food Systems: Past, Present, and Future |publisher=Legacy CDMS: Elsevier Inc |year=2002 |pages=915 |language=English}}</ref> Modern astronauts have a greater variety of main courses to choose from and many astronauts request personalized menus from lists of available foods including items like fruit salad and spaghetti. Fresh fruits and vegetables that can be safely stored at room temperature are eaten on space flights. Astronauts sometimes request beef jerky for flights, as it has an extended shelf life and a strong flavor.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newschannel10.com/story/6906924/amarillo-beef-jerky-in-space/ |title=Amarillo Beef Jerky In Space |publisher=KFDA |date=8 August 2007 |access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/400k-spent-on-space-food-beef-jerky-ends-up-on-menu-1.533672 |title=$400K spent on space-food, beef jerky ends up on menu |work=CTV News |agency=The Canadian Press |first=Peter |last=Rakobowchuk |date=18 July 2010 |access-date=29 June 2019}}</ref> Food on the ISS is similar to the Shuttle, in that it is individually packaged to allow for exchanges and prevent issues in the microgravity environment. Due to the limited water supply, an emphasis has been placed on thermostabilized foods rather than rehydration methods.<ref name=":3" />

Since 2002, the small LADA Greenhouse system (the leaf chamber is just 16 x 20 x 26 cm/6 x 8 x 10 inches) has been used onboard the International Space Station to study how plants grow in microgravity and to grow edible vegetables for the astronauts. LADA includes a control module and was sent to the station already equipped with the root media for the plants to be grown and eaten in space.
* '''Italian''': On 3 May 2015, Italian astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti became the first person to drink freshly brewed coffee in space. Commercial firms Lavazza and Argotec developed an espresso machine, called ''[[Engineering:ISSpresso|ISSpresso]]'', for the International Space Station. It can also brew other hot drinks, such as tea, hot chocolate, and broth. While the device serves as a quality-of-life improvement aboard the station, it is also an experiment in fluid dynamics in space.<ref name="nytimes20150504">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/05/world/europe/espresso-now-the-international-space-station-is-fully-equipped.html |title=Espresso? Now the International Space Station Is Fully Equipped |work=The New York Times |first=Elisabetta |last=Povoledo |date=4 May 2015 |access-date=7 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="cspace20150504">{{cite news |url=http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-050415a-isspresso-coffee-space-station.html |title=To boldly brew: Astronaut uses ISSpresso to make first cup of coffee in space |work=CollectSpace.com |first=Robert Z. |last=Pearlman |date=4 May 2015 |access-date=7 May 2015}}</ref> The brewing machine and drinking cups were specially designed to work with fluids in low gravity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Space Coffee - NASA Science |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2015/10jul_spacecoffee/ |website=science.nasa.gov |access-date=11 July 2015}}</ref>
* '''Japanese''': The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) have developed traditional Japanese foods and drinks such as matcha, yōkan, ramen, sushi, soups, and rice with ume for consumption in orbit.<ref>{{citation |title=「宇宙日本食」の認証について |publisher=Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) |date=2007 |url=http://www.jaxa.jp/press/2007/06/20070627_spacefood_j.html}}</ref> The foods have been produced in collaboration with Japanese food companies such as Ajinomoto, Meiji Dairies, and Nissin Foods.<ref>{{citation |title=宇宙日本食 |date=2010 |url=http://iss.jaxa.jp/spacefood/index.html}}</ref>
* '''Korean''': In April 2008, {{wipe|South Korea}}’s first astronaut, Yi So-yeon, was a crew member on the International Space Station and brought a modified version of Korea's national dish, kimchi. It took three research institutes several years and over one million dollars in funding to create a version of the fermented cabbage dish that was suitable for space travel.<ref name=kimchi>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/24/world/asia/24kimchi.html|title=Starship Kimchi: A Bold Taste Goes Where It Has Never Gone Before|first=Choe|last=Sang-Hun|date=24 February 2008|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref>
* ''' Russian''': On the [[Astronomy:International Space Station|International Space Station]], the Russian crew has a selection of over 300 dishes. An example daily menu can consist of:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.pravda.ru/science/earth/09-06-2009/107747-space_toilet-0/ |title=Pravda: Healthy diet of Russian cosmonauts ruins NASA's space toilets |work=English pravda.ru |date=9 June 2009 |access-date=8 October 2014}}</ref>
** ''Breakfast:'' curds and nuts, mashed potatoes with nuts, apple-quince chip sticks, sugarless coffee, and vitamins
** ''Lunch:'' jellied pike perch, borscht with meat, goulash with [[Biology:Buckwheat|buckwheat]], bread, black currant juice, sugarless tea
** ''Supper:'' rice and meat, broccoli and cheese, nuts, tea with sugar
** ''Second supper:'' dried beef, cashew nuts, peaches, grape juice
* '''Swedish''': Swedish astronaut [[Biography:Christer Fuglesang|Christer Fuglesang]] was not allowed to bring reindeer jerky with him on board a shuttle mission as it was "weird" for the Americans so soon before Christmas. He had to go with moose instead.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dn.se/DNet/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=2597&a=589321&previousRenderType=6 |access-date=19 November 2006 |title=Christer Fuglesang redo för rymden efter 14 års träning |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001090818/http://www.dn.se/DNet/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=2597&a=589321&previousRenderType=6 |archive-date=1 October 2007 |language=sv}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://sydsvenskan.se/varlden/article195352.ece |title=Torkat renkött störde julfriden |publisher=Sydsvenska dagbladet |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090120230451/http://sydsvenskan.se/varlden/article195352.ece |archive-date=20 January 2009 |language=sv}}</ref>

NASA's Advanced Food Technology Project (AFT) is researching ways to ensure an adequate food supply for long-duration space exploration missions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/slsd/about/divisions/hefd/project/advanced-foods.html |title=NASA - Human Systems Engineering and Development (HSED) - HRP Advanced Food Technology |access-date=8 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140922043515/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/slsd/about/divisions/hefd/project/advanced-foods.html |archive-date=22 September 2014}}</ref> This research is primarily focused on mitigating the adverse health effects caused by long duration spaceflight.<ref name=":3" /> The impact to health can include symptoms such as weight loss, dehydration, a reduction in red blood cell count, constipation and electrolyte imbalances. The Advanced Food Technology Project aims to develop space foods that minimise these adverse effects.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Perchonok |first=Michele |title=NASA Food Systems: Past, Present, and Future |publisher=Legacy CDMS: Elsevier Inc |year=2002 |pages=915–916 |language=English}}</ref>

===Chinese space program===
[[File:Chinese Astronaut Food.JPG|thumb|Chinese astronaut food packs for the Shenzhou 7 mission]]
In October 2003, the People's Republic of China commenced its first crewed spaceflight, [[Astronomy:Shenzhou 5|Shenzhou 5]]. The astronaut, Yang Liwei, brought along with him and ate specially processed yuxiang pork ({{zh|s=鱼香肉丝}}), Kung Pao chicken ({{zh|s=宫保鸡丁}}), and Eight Treasures rice ({{zh|s=八宝饭}}), along with Chinese herbal tea.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.eastday.com/epublish/gb/paper140/40/class014000034/hwz1027238.htm |title=杨利伟的10月15日:飞船中的"非常"生活 |access-date=8 October 2014}}</ref> Food made for this flight and the subsequent crewed flight in 2007 has been commercialized for sale to the mass market.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/offbeat/2007-07-24-china-food_N.htm |title=Chinese astronaut food to hit market shelves |website=[[Software:USA Today|USA Today]] |access-date=8 October 2014}}</ref>

At Tiangong space station, meals consisting of 120 different types of food, selected based on astronauts' preferences, are stored aboard. Staples including shredded pork in garlic sauce, kung pao chicken, black pepper beef, yuxiang shredded pork, pickled cabbage, and beverages, including a variety of teas and juices, are resupplied by trips of the [[Engineering:Tianzhou (spacecraft)|Tianzhou-class]] robotic [[Engineering:Cargo spacecraft|cargo spacecraft]]. Fresh fruits and vegetables are stored in coolers. Huang Weifen, the chief astronaut trainer of CMSA, explains that most of the food is prepared to be solid, boneless, small-piece. Condiments such as pork sauce and Sichuan pepper sauce are used to compensate for the changes in the sense of [[Astronomy:Effect of spaceflight on the human body#Taste|taste]] in microgravity.<ref name="tiangong_food1" /><ref name="tiangong_food2" /> Food items are often adjusted according to astronauts' feedback, such as when larger supplies of vegetables were included in Tianzhou 4.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spacenews.com/tianzhou-4-cargo-craft-docks-with-chinese-space-station/ |title=Tianzhou-4 cargo craft docks with Chinese space station |website=Space News |date=10 May 2022 |first=Andrew |last=Jones }}</ref>

Additionally, China's Tiangong-2 station has conducted experiments growing food onboard in a micro-gravity environment, such as thale cress, a form of edible weed, as well as rice. The station also hosts Silkworms - an experiment devised by students to see if they can be used as a source of protein on long-duration space missions.<ref name=":4" />

=== Future long duration missions ===
Lots of work is currently being done to develop food and packaging solutions suitable for long duration space missions (2.5 y+). The primary goal is to provide palatable and nutritious food for astronauts, with the additional consideration of minimising volume, mass and waste.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Perchonok |first=Michele |title=NASA food systems: Past, present, and future |publisher=Legacy CDMS: Elsevier Inc |year=2002 |pages=916 |language=English}}</ref>

A key consideration is minimising the waste produced during long duration missions. The importance of biodegradable, edible and reusable packaging solutions have been emphasised, as these will reduce the strain on the solid-waste management system. Maximising the shelf life of foods has also been proposed, further helping to reduce waste.<ref name=":5" />

Research is also being conducted on food systems for lunar and planetary surface missions. A large focus is currently on crop processing, with the aim that crops grown hydroponically will constitute the majority of the menu. Initial crop ideas include white and sweet potatoes, soybeans, wheat and rice. A secondary benefit is the facilitating the production and regulation of oxygen and carbon dioxide.<ref name=":5" />

A focus is being placed on ensuring astronauts receive not only the recommended levels of nutrients to support mental and physical health, but the correct amounts required for long duration spaceflight. Research has shown that nutritional requirements change with the amount of time spent in space. For example, the recommended amount of calcium is 1000 mg/day, rising to 1200 mg/day in long duration missions.<ref name=":5"/>

==Consumer derivatives==
Capitalizing on the popularity of the Apollo space missions in the early 1970s, Pillsbury marketed "Food Sticks" (also known as "[[Engineering:Space Food Sticks|Space Food Sticks]]") for the consumer market.<ref name="Space Food Sticks">{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefoodsticks.com/pres.html |title=Space Food Sticks |access-date=8 October 2014}}</ref> Fourteen individually packaged sticks were included in a box, and came in six flavors such as peanut butter, [[Chemistry:Caramel|caramel]], and chocolate. Food Sticks were marketed as a "nutritionally balanced between meal snack".{{cn|date=August 2023}}

Examples of derivative products can be found in NASA Space Center gift shops, general sweets and novelty shops, online retailers, or at Army Surplus stores. A popular example is [[Astronomy:Freeze-dried ice cream|freeze-dried ice cream]]. Tang, originally marketed in 1959, saw an increase in popularity in the 1960s due to its inclusion on American human space flights.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

==See also==
* Airline meal
* [[Astronomy:Alcohol and spaceflight|Alcohol and spaceflight]]
* HI-SEAS
* Meal, Ready-to-Eat

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020424103813/http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/living/spacefood/ Space food] by NASA Human Spaceflight
* [https://www.nasa.gov/audience/formedia/presskits/spacefood/factsheets.html Space food fact sheets] by NASA
* [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-368/s6ch1.htm Apollo Food Technology] by NASA
* [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-202/contents.htm ''Aerospace Food Technology''] (1969) by NASA
* {{YouTube|PLmc6CJQwLM|''Dining on the Space Station''}} by NASA/Scott Kelly
* [https://www.npr.org/2007/06/07/10792763/beyond-tang-food-in-space "Beyond Tang: Food in Space"] by NPR

{{Space medicine}}
{{Inspace}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Space Food}}
[[Category:Human spaceflight]]
[[Category:Space science]]

{{Sourceattribution|Space food}}